Sardis: A First Millennium B.C.E. Capital in Western Anatolia

Sardis, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in western Anatolia, emerged as a significant political and cultural capital during the first millennium BCE under Lydian rule. Excavations reveal its dynamic history spanning over three millennia, from ca. 1500 BCE to the present, with layers of Anatolian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Turkish influences. The site's settlement fluctuated between a prosperous urban center and modest hamlets, often coexisting with transhumant populations. From the seventh century BCE to the seventh century CE, Sardis thrived as a major city, occupying up to 200 hectares of land. Its strategic location in the Hermus, Kayster, and Maeander river valleys shaped its cultural significance, blending Lydian traditions—including their distinctive Indo-European language—with subsequent civilizations.

Greenewalt, C. H. (2012). Sardis: A First Millennium B.C.E. Capital in Western Anatolia. Oxford Handbooks Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0052