Reconstructing the geological provenance and long-distance movement of rectangular, fishtail, and croisette copper ingots in Iron Age Zambia and Zimbabwe

Research reveals that the majority of rectangular, fishtail, and croisette copper ingots found in Zambia and Zimbabwe originated from the Central African Copperbelt, with only one ingot tracing back to the Magondi Belt in Zimbabwe. This finding challenges the long-standing debate on whether these ingots were exclusively produced in the Copperbelt or locally replicated using Zimbabwean ore. The study employed lead isotopic analysis (LIA) and chemical analyses to provenance 32 copper artifacts, including 29 croisette ingots from Zimbabwe and 3 ingots from Zambia, along with an experimental 'X' shaped ingot. The results indicate that 16 objects were smelted using Copperbelt copper, 16 specifically sourced from the Kipushi deposit, while only one HXR ingot linked to the Magondi Belt. This suggests significant long-distance trade and movement of these ingots, as well as localized production in Zimbabwe.

Stephens, J., Killick, D., & Chirikure, S. (2023). Reconstructing the geological provenance and long-distance movement of rectangular, fishtail, and croisette copper ingots in Iron Age Zambia and Zimbabwe. Plos One, 18(3), e0282660. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282660