Twelfth Century AD

Paleoclimate records from the Quelccaya ice cap and Lake Titicaca reveal a strong correlation between climate variations, particularly precipitation changes, and the rise and fall of pre-Hispanic civilizations in western Peru and Bolivia. This study highlights how climatic shifts, especially those linked to tropical processes like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), influenced agrarian cultures in environmentally sensitive zones such as the Andean altiplano. Specifically, it examines the impacts of climate change on the development and dissolution of the Tiwanaku state, a significant political and spiritual center of the Tiwanaku culture. The findings underscore the vulnerability of complex societies to climatic variability, providing critical insights into the interplay between environmental conditions and human civilizations.

Thompson, L. G., & Kolata, A. L. (2017). Twelfth Century AD. In (Editor), Oxford Scholarship Online. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199329199.003.0008