Publications
A Summary of Practices in the Conservation and Management of the Zhoukoudian Site in the New Era
A strategic shift towards 'preventive conservation' has significantly enhanced the preservation of the Zhoukoudian Site, a UNESCO World Heritage property. This approach, involving round-the-clock monitoring, protective shelters like the Peking Man Cave structure, 3D digital archiving, and ecosystem restoration, effectively safeguards the site from natural weathering and historical legacies. The integration of legal frameworks and a new museum complex further supports scientific research, education, and cultural tourism. However, sustained efforts in securing continuous funding, relocating residents, and advancing technological applications remain critical for long-term preservation.
Chapter 10 Supplementary Essays: Multidisciplinary Empirical Evidence for the Continuity of East Asian Human Evolution
A multidisciplinary analysis challenges the 'fossil gap' in East Asian human evolution, demonstrating that Late Pleistocene geological conditions and ecological stability in regions like Shandong highlands support continuous indigenous evolution. The study integrates geology, ecology, eco-developmental biology, and paleogenomics to refute assumptions about fossil absence equating to extinction or replacement. Geological data reveal deep burial depths reducing site discovery probabilities, while ecological mapping identifies Shandong as a stable refuge. Genetic evidence, including Denisovan introgression and EDAR V370A selection, aligns with archaeological findings, confirming indigenous genetic continuity. The research constructs a coherent framework that excludes demographic implications of the 'gap' and verifies long-term regional occupation.
Enamel proteins from six Homo erectus specimens across China
A groundbreaking analysis of ancient enamel proteins from six Homo erectus specimens, spanning three Middle Pleistocene sites in China—Zhoukoudian, Hexian, and Sunjiadong—reveals a previously unknown genetic monogroup within this species. The study identified two amino acid variants, one of which (A253G in AMBN) is unique to these H. erectus populations and has not been detected in other human lineages, including Neanderthals, Denisovans, or modern humans. The second variant (AMBN(M273V)), previously linked to Denisovans, suggests potential genetic introgression from H. erectus into Denisovan populations during the Late Middle Pleistocene, possibly occurring in East Asia where both groups may have coexisted. This finding implies that super-archaic introgression in Denisovans—and subsequently in modern humans—likely originated from H. erectus, reshaping our understanding of ancient human genetic exchange.
Peking Man’s Place in Public Representations of Palaeolithic Archaeology
Peking Man's portrayal in public representations of Palaeolithic archaeology reflects broader societal and political shifts in China. The study identifies four distinct phases: the discovery phase (1921), the Mao era, the Reform and Opening period (1980s), and a current fourth phase marked by a gradual diminishment of Peking Man's status. Initially, the focus was on significant fossil discoveries and international collaboration, emphasizing Asia's potential as humanity's birthplace. During the Mao era, Peking Man was integrated into Marxist narratives, symbolizing Chinese unity and antiquity. The third phase re-engaged with global paleoanthropological debates, challenging previous interpretations. Current trends suggest a shift away from Peking Man's prominence, indicating evolving societal relationships with ancient history.
Commemorative Practices of National Identity as a Concept of Historical Memory (on the Example of the Historical and Archaeological Complex of Zhoukoudian, China)
Commemorative practices at the Peking Man Site (Zhoukoudian) serve as a powerful tool for shaping national identity through historical memory. The study reveals that sensory-visual engagement with archaeological heritage significantly enhances public understanding and academic value, bridging gaps between state strategies and societal needs. By analyzing Zhoukoudian’s projects, researchers demonstrate how such practices expand horizons for state-society interaction, informing future development while adapting to challenges. This approach underscores the site’s role as a dynamic resource for both education and identity formation.
Innovative Digital Technology in Education about Paleolithic Sites: A Case Study of the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian
Location-based entertainment virtual reality (LBE VR) significantly enhances adolescents' engagement with Paleolithic heritage, as demonstrated by a study at the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian. The research found that LBE VR facilitates deeper learning about early human history and culture through immersive, interactive experiences. Using semi-structured interviews with 57 secondary-school students (aged 15–17) who participated in an LBE VR program titled I Am Ape-man: A Day into the Life of Peking Man, the study employed a multiple-case qualitative design to assess the technology's educational impact. The findings provide empirical support for integrating LBE VR into Paleolithic site education, offering valuable insights for designing innovative educational applications and pedagogical strategies.
The Impact of Website Quality of Museums on Visitors’ Willingness to Study in Physical Archaeological Site Museums
Research reveals that the quality of museum websites significantly influences visitors' willingness to engage with physical archaeological site museums. Specifically, high information quality and realistic virtual representations on official websites enhance visitors' cognitive understanding, while strong system and service quality foster positive emotional connections. These factors collectively drive greater interest in physical site visits and studies. The study, based on a questionnaire survey of 272 participants at the Zhoukoudian Site Museum, used SPSS and AMOS to validate its model, which integrates 'cognition-affection-conation' theory and immersion theory. Findings offer actionable insights for improving museum website design to boost educational engagement.
The New Taphonomy and How It Can Boost the Role of the Asian Pleistocene Archaeological Record in Human Evolution
A groundbreaking approach called 'new taphonomy' leverages artificial intelligence and computational archaeology to revolutionize the interpretation of Asian Pleistocene fossil records, particularly at key sites like Zhoukoudian. This method uses machine learning classifiers, convolutional neural networks, and 3D deep learning architectures to precisely identify bone surface modifications caused by carnivores, reducing equifinality and providing mathematical certainty in agency attribution. By addressing long-standing challenges such as complex palimpsests and limited dissemination, this study positions the Asian archaeological record as a critical component in discussions on early human behavioral evolution. The proposed model aims for global application, enhancing our understanding of hominin activities and ecological contexts.
The Polycentric Bush: Reimagining Early-to-Middle Pleistocene Homo Evolution
A new model of early-to-Middle Pleistocene Homo evolution challenges the traditional linear, single-species narrative centered on Homo erectus. The 'polycentric bush' model proposes a complex, dynamic landscape with multiple coexisting Homo lineages across Africa, Asia, and Europe, characterized by significant morphological variation and chronological overlap. This study integrates paleontological, archaeological, and genetic evidence from key sites like Zhoukoudian, Dmanisi, and the Rising Star Cave system to argue for adaptive radiations, interbreeding events, and reticulate evolution, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of human origins.
Relics from the Past
Current exhibitions on human evolution at Chinese museums, including those at the Beijing Natural History Museum and Zhoukoudian Site Museum, are significantly shaped by the historical development of Chinese palaeoanthropology rather than contemporary museological or legislative requirements. This study reveals that the narratives presented in these exhibitions reflect deep-rooted traditions in the field, with the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian serving as a key case study. By analyzing three major exhibitions—Origin of Human Beings, the Zhoukoudian Site Museum exhibition, and Ancient China—the research demonstrates how historical context dominates over modern museological practices, offering insights into the intersection of science, history, and public presentation.
Zhoukoudian: the birthplace of palaeoanthropology and the stimulus for Paleolithic archaeology in China
Zhoukoudian, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in China, stands as the birthplace of palaeoanthropology and a pivotal stimulus for Paleolithic archaeology. Excavated since 1921, this site has yielded an unparalleled record of prehistoric human activity spanning from 700,000 to 10,000 years ago. It contains the most abundant, systematic, and valuable collection of human fossils, stone artifacts, ornaments, and mammalian fossils globally. The research highlights Zhoukoudian's significance in transnational scientific history, emphasizing its role in establishing Paleolithic archaeology in China and its enduring importance as a geoheritage site.
Effects of pH on Disintegration Characteristics of Gypsum Karst Breccia under Scouring Action
A critical threshold flow rate for rock disintegration was identified at the Peking Man Site, where gypsum karst breccia stabilizes around 73% loss under scouring action regardless of further cycle increases. This finding reveals that pH-dependent chemical processes—acid dissolution accelerating ion release (Ca²⁺, Al³⁺) while alkaline conditions promote secondary cementation—dominate disintegration dynamics. Researchers analyzed pore structures and mineral changes using NMR, SEM, XRD, and ICP-OES to show macropore vulnerability as the primary pathway for pH-driven degradation. The study provides a predictive framework for slope stability risks in karst environments under environmental stress.
Effect of support settlement on ultimate bearing capacity of Zhoukoudian steel structure
Non-uniform support settlement slightly increases the elastic global stability and elastoplastic ultimate bearing capacity of Zhoukoudian's lattice shell structure, but excessive settlement can reduce bearing capacity when initial imperfections are considered. The study used finite element analysis (ANSYS) to model geometric and material nonlinearities under varying settlement scenarios, revealing that while minor non-uniform settlements may benefit structural stability, larger displacements pose risks without significantly altering the instability path.
Foundation and Frontier – Centenary Path of Dental Anthropology in China
Chinese dental anthropology, spanning a century of research, has significantly advanced the understanding of human evolution and population interactions. The study reveals that over 70 human fossil sites in China, many containing dental remains, provide critical insights into early human origins and evolutionary patterns. Notably, late Middle Pleistocene human teeth exhibit greater variability and mosaic features, sparking debates on their taxonomic classification. Using the American ASUDAS method, researchers analyzed Neolithic to modern human dentition, uncovering consistent non-metric traits that highlight northern-southern population differences and exchanges with western populations, some corroborated by paleogenomics. The application of new techniques has elevated Chinese dental anthropology to an international standard, though questions about early human origins remain open due to material limitations. Future research is poised to deepen our understanding through modern materials and innovative methods.
Origins of Burial Practices in Eastern Part of Eurasia: The Case of Zhoukoudian Cave
New carbon dating reveals the Zhoukoudian cave, a renowned site associated with Peking Man, as the earliest burial complex in Eastern Eurasia, dating back 33.5–38.4 thousand years cal. BP. This discovery highlights a significant gap of ten to fifteen thousand years between Zhoukoudian and other Upper Paleolithic burials in the region. The study suggests that Zhoukoudian's burial practices, characterized by ornaments like perforated animal teeth and bone tubes, align culturally with areas west of Lake Baikal, indicating early Homo sapiens migration patterns into East Asia. Unlike southern Eurasian traditions marked by cremation and limited offerings, Zhoukoudian's rituals remain elusive but are linked to northern Eurasian influences, challenging the narrative of regional burial evolution.
Redating the Zhuwobu Paleolithic site in the Huailai basin, North China, using the MET-pIRIR procedure on K-feldspars
A reanalysis of the Zhuwobu Paleolithic site in North China's Huailai basin, part of the generalized Nihewan Basin, challenges previous dating estimates. Using the multiple elevated temperatures post-infrared (MET-pIRIR) procedure on potassium-rich feldspars, researchers determined that the cultural layer at this site was deposited approximately 280 ± 13 thousand years ago (ka), during Marine Isotope Stage 8 (MIS 8). This finding contradicts the earlier electron spin resonance (ESR) dating estimate of 504 ± 76 ka, suggesting the previous age may have been overestimated due to insufficient bleaching before burial. The study highlights the importance of refining dating methods to accurately assess the survival conditions and potential connections between ancient hominin sites in this region.
Display of the Ancient Religious Bone Cults in the Late Acheulean–Mousterian Art
Archaeological evidence from the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian and other Late Acheulean–Mousterian sites reveals that ritualistic bone cults emerged around 400,000 to 200,000 years ago, marking a pivotal shift in human spiritual evolution. These findings challenge earlier assumptions by demonstrating that symbolic bone artifacts—used for magical rites—predate the Mousterian era, indicating an early stage of religious thought tied to animistic beliefs about life and vitality. The study analyzes carved bones and skull burials (e.g., Zhoukoudian, Ngandonga) to argue that while intuitive supernatural awareness may have existed earlier, ritualized practices formalizing these ideas began in the late Acheulean period. This research suggests that bone cults were among the first sacred artifacts, bridging material and transcendent realms through symbolic compositions and rituals.
Ancient DNA of northern China Hystricidae sub-fossils reveals the evolutionary history of old world porcupines in the Late Pleistocene
A Late Pleistocene extirpation event in Old World porcupines (Family: Hystricidae) is revealed through ancient DNA analysis of sub-fossils from northern China. Researchers sequenced partial mitochondrial 12S rRNA and cyt b genes from seven porcupine individuals, including those from Tianyuan Cave near Zhoukoudian—a site significant for its late fossil record. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the morphologically identified Hystrix subcristata porcupines were more closely related to Hystrix brachyura, challenging previous classifications. This discovery, combined with morphological adaptations and associated fauna evidence, provides insights into the evolutionary history of porcupines during the Late Quaternary period.
Chronological problems in Chinese human fossil sites
A significant age discrepancy exists among dating methods for Chinese human fossil sites, with 17 out of 86 sites showing large divergences. The study attributes this to taphonomy issues and inherent differences in dating techniques. It recommends multi-method strategies for reliable age determination: paleomagnetic dating for Early Pleistocene sites, combined U-series, ESR, and OSL methods for Middle Pleistocene, and U-series, 14C, and OSL for Late Pleistocene. Cross-examination of multiple methods is crucial to avoid errors, particularly in cave sites. While some sites like Zhoukoudian have reliable ages after cross-checking, others require further investigation or dating, such as Yunxian and Meipu Longgu Cave. Accurate age determination is vital for advancing theories on human evolution in China.
Hominin diversity in the western Indonesian archipelago during the Quaternary : a dental record perspective
A dental fossil analysis of hominin diversity in the western Indonesian archipelago reveals six distinct groups, suggesting complex evolutionary and genetic interactions during the Quaternary. The study distinguishes between early hominines like 'Meganthropus' (group 1) and later forms such as 'Homo wajakensis' (group 4), with evidence of biological continuity from the Lower to Middle Pleistocene but possible discontinuity with group 1. Notably, teeth from Zhoukoudian in continental Asia were grouped with Southeast Asian hominines, implying genetic contact between these regions during the Middle Pleistocene. Later groups (5 and 6) show signs of adaptation to insular environments and potential new arrivals from mainland Asia, aligning with Austronesian and Austroasiatic dispersals.
Johan Gunnar Andersson: Archaeological Geologist and Pioneer
Johan Gunnar Andersson, a Swedish economic geologist, made groundbreaking discoveries during his time in China that significantly advanced the fields of archaeology and palaeontology. His most notable achievement was the discovery of the 'Peking Man' site at Zhoukoudian, which provided crucial insights into early human evolution in Asia. Through meticulous excavations and analysis, Andersson not only uncovered evidence of Homo erectus but also defined the prehistoric Chinese Neolithic Period based on his findings at the Yangshao site in Henan Province. His work, conducted without formal archaeological training, laid the foundation for modern archaeological methods in China and contributed to the establishment of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm, which houses many unique artifacts from his expeditions.
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