Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Heliopolis (Baalbek)

A reevaluation of the iconographic evidence challenges long-standing interpretations of the deities Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury at Baalbek (Heliopolis). Contrary to prior assumptions that Jupiter was a solar deity linked to Hadad or that Mercury represented a dying-and-rising Dionysian figure, this study proposes more plausible alternatives. By analyzing visual representations, it argues that these gods were not merely solar or syncretic but held distinct symbolic roles, reshaping our understanding of their religious significance in ancient Heliopolis.

Kropp, A. J. M. (2010). Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Heliopolis (Baalbek). Syria, 87, 229–264. https://doi.org/10.4000/syria.681