Publications
Ancient Egypt, Baalbek and Peru
A groundbreaking study challenges the conventional understanding of megalithic construction, proposing that massive stone blocks at sites like Baalbek were not transported and fitted with primitive tools but instead cast in situ using a geopolymer process. This 'Geopolymer Hypothesis' suggests the use of crushed stone aggregate and chemical plasticizers, enabling manual transport in small containers. By analyzing evidence from Giza Plateau, Baalbek, and the Andes through industrial engineering principles, the research argues that traditional monolithic theories are technically infeasible, offering a novel perspective on ancient construction techniques.
The Baalbek Enigma
Baalbek’s temple complex, particularly its colossal Trilithon monoliths, challenges conventional Roman-era construction timelines. Weaving together archaeological evidence—continuous Neolithic habitation, Bronze Age foundations, and geodetic alignments with Giza and Heliopolis—this study argues that Baalbek’s megalithic structures may predate the Roman Imperial period (1st–3rd centuries CE). The research synthesizes conventional and alternative viewpoints, proposing a reassessment of the site’s historical timeline. By examining medieval legends, ancient names like 'Heliopolis,' and sacred significance across millennia, it offers a new framework for understanding Baalbek’s enduring enigma.
Ein hellenistisches Kapitell in Baalbek?
A unique Hellenistic capital from the 1st century BCE, discovered at Baalbek, provides evidence of architectural innovation during a previously undocumented period. This capital, with its distinctive design, challenges conventional expectations by demonstrating a non-canonical approach to architectural elements and a free interpretation of formal conventions, even in pre-imperial Baalbek. The study relies on archaeological analysis to shed light on this elusive era, offering insights into the complex interplay between local traditions and Hellenistic influences in the region's early architectural development.
Hellenistic and Roman Baalbek and the Bekaa
Recent archaeological surveys and excavations at Baalbek-Heliopolis challenge long-standing assumptions about the origins of the Temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus, revealing that its construction began just before 15 BCE, coinciding with the establishment of the Roman colony centered on Berytus. This contradicts previous notions of deep antiquity linked to ancient Semitic deities. The study also provides insights into Roman life in the Bekaa Valley through excavations at Niha and Hosn Niha, offering a consistent picture with other Roman sites across the empire. Historical sources describe Seleucid and Ptolemaic competition for the region before the rise of the Ituraeans, contributing to a nuanced understanding of the area's Hellenistic period.
Das Orakel von Baalbek und die sogenannte Sibyllentheosophie
A newly discovered Greek manuscript of the Sibylline Oracles, dated to Emperor Theodosius I's reign and later revised at Baalbek (502–506 AD), reveals significant Eastern variations from Western texts. This manuscript suggests possible Monophysite influence and traces of an unknown work, 'Theosophy,' challenging traditional interpretations of these ancient prophecies. The study analyzed textual discrepancies to uncover their historical and theological implications.
Nābulusī Explores the Ruins of Baalbek: Antiquarianism in the Ottoman Empire during the Seventeenth Century
A study reveals that the Damascene scholar ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-Nābulusī, during the 17th century, visited and described the Roman ruins of Baalbek twice, in 1689 and 1700. Contrary to the common perception that Muslims ignored pre-Islamic antiquity, Nābulusī's interpretation of the site as a palace built by jinns for Solomon was likely a deliberate play on its historicity to emphasize Syria's innate sanctity. This finding challenges the notion of a stark contrast between antiquarianism in the Ottoman Empire and Renaissance Europe, suggesting instead that they developed along parallel but variant lines.
The process of urban heritage (Case study: Baalbek)
Baalbek, once a thriving cultural and administrative hub with significant heritage value, now faces severe social, economic, and political challenges that threaten its urban continuity. Despite its historical importance as the center of agricultural and tourist activities in Lebanon, including hosting the renowned Baalbek International Festivals (1955), the city has struggled to maintain its identity due to failed state-led development projects. These projects lacked comprehensive regional or national integration, leading to a loss of social cohesion and cultural meaning. The study highlights that Baalbek's decline is a result of systemic failures in urban planning, compounded by economic crises and political instability, which have distorted its heritage morphology and isolated it from broader developmental narratives.
The Ruins of Baalbek
A pioneering monograph on UNESCO World Heritage Site Baalbek, first published in the 1750s, revolutionized archaeological documentation with its systematic approach combining physical descriptions, human geography, and detailed engravings of classical architecture. The work by Robert Wood, John Bouverie, James Dawkins, and draftsman Giovanni Battista Borra introduced a novel method of recording ancient sites, featuring both contemporary views and precise architectural plans with measurements. This groundbreaking publication not only set a new standard for archaeological monographs but also significantly influenced Neoclassical architecture across Britain, Europe, and North America. A recent edition reproduces all original engravings and includes a scholarly introduction by Benjamin Anderson, underscoring its enduring legacy in both academic and architectural history.
Baalbek, Libanon. Die Arbeiten des Jahres 2019
In 2019, field research at Baalbek, Lebanon, revealed new insights into the site's architectural and historical layers. Systematic investigations in the Jupiter sanctuary uncovered significant details about the use of color in its buildings, enhancing our understanding of Roman construction techniques. Excavations also resumed beneath the altar courtyard, uncovering Middle Bronze Age strata that provide a deeper context for the site's pre-Roman history. Additionally, conservation planning for the ruins and development projects for presenting the monumental Roman bath were advanced, aiming to preserve and showcase Baalbek's archaeological significance.
Culture, tourism, and territory: Analyzing discourses and perceptions of actors in Byblos and Baalbek in Lebanon
A higher degree of consensus exists between local actors, residents, and visitors regarding cultural tourism, leisure, and territorial development in Byblos compared to Baalbek. This finding emerges from a mixed-methods study analyzing discourses and perceptions across 509 participants (264 in Byblos, 245 in Baalbek) using qualitative surveys and discursive analysis of documentation. The research reveals distinct cultural dynamics: Byblos leans toward inclusive development and leisure tourism, while Baalbek emphasizes religious tourism. These differences are linked to the cities' religious backgrounds—Byblos being Christian and Baalbek Muslim—and shaped by geopolitical influences and local-visitor interactions. The study underscores how communal identities and external factors mobilize territorial development in Lebanon's UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Die Architekturornamentik des Jupitertempels in Baalbek
New evidence from the Jupiter Temple at Baalbek reveals previously unknown fragments of its lost cella, significantly expanding our understanding of its architectural ornamentation. Through comprehensive cataloging, researchers identified 23 capitals instead of the previously assumed two, providing a more detailed reconstruction of the temple's design. Comparative analysis with the Mars-Ultor Temple in Rome and the Bel Temple in Palmyra enabled a novel dating of the temple's construction to the second half of the 1st century CE. This study also highlights the artistic prowess and local origin of the stone carvers, as well as the political symbolism embedded in the temple's unique frieze, reflecting the elevated status of Colonia Beirut/Heliopolis within the Roman Empire. Systematic unfinished ornamentation is attributed to financial constraints during the transition between the Neronian and Flavian eras.
Baalbek-Heliopolis, the Bekaa, and Berytus from 100 BCE to 400 CE
A fundamental shift in understanding the religious and colonial history of Baalbek-Heliopolis emerges from this study, challenging long-held assumptions about its origins. Contrary to the traditional view that associates the site with ancient Semitic or Phoenician worship dating back to the Bronze Age, research indicates that religious activity at Baalbek-Heliopolis is primarily a product of Roman colonial transformation following the establishment of Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus in 15 BCE. The study examines changes across multiple sites—Baalbek-Heliopolis, Berytus, Deir el-Qalaa, Niha, and Hosn Niha—using archaeological evidence to recontextualize their development within the broader landscape of the Bekaa valley. This approach reveals how colonial dynamics reshaped religious practices and urban landscapes in this region during the 1st to 4th centuries CE.
Experimental, Numerical, and Theoretical Investigation of the Rocking Response of Baalbek Columns under Harmonic Excitations
A novel approach to predicting the seismic response of Baalbek's iconic columns has emerged from combined experimental, numerical, and theoretical investigations. Researchers found that reduced-scale models (1/20 and 1/40) subjected to harmonic excitations closely mirrored the rocking and overturning behavior of full-sized columns under earthquake-like conditions. This similitude allows for accurate predictions of seismic impacts on these ancient structures using simplified numerical simulations and critical impulse theory. The study further reveals that the mode of column overturning and the number of blocks involved can serve as indicators to estimate the period and peak acceleration of critical impulses within earthquake signals, offering a new tool for assessing structural vulnerability in World Heritage Sites.
The Megalithic Quarry of Baalbek: Sector III the Megaliths of Ḥajjar al-Ḥibla
A comprehensive study of the megalithic quarry at Baalbek, Lebanon, reveals critical insights into the ancient stone-cutting techniques and the extensive network of quarries used to supply the monumental temples recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The research, conducted collaboratively between the Lebanese University and the German Expedition of Baalbek, documents the quarry's features in Sector III, known as Ḥajjar al-Ḥibla, providing detailed evidence of the sophisticated methods employed by ancient craftsmen. This study builds on earlier excavations initiated in 1898–1903, offering a broader understanding of the quarry's role in the construction of Baalbek's iconic structures, particularly the Temple of Jupiter. The findings contribute significantly to the archaeological narrative of this site, which has been under continuous investigation since its recognition as a World Heritage Site in 1984.
Laser Scanning the Past for the Future: Baalbek Temple
A three-dimensional survey of Baalbek's archaeological site, employing laser scanning and photogrammetric techniques, has successfully identified critical hazards and threats affecting the UNESCO World Heritage Property. This approach, part of a capacity-building initiative funded by UNESCO following Lebanon's 2006 war, enabled the development of a risk preparedness strategy (RPS) to safeguard the site's significance and integrity. The multidisciplinary collaboration involving experts from Lebanon, Taiwan, and Belgium demonstrated the efficacy of advanced digital documentation in mitigating risks to cultural heritage.
Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Heliopolis (Baalbek)
A reevaluation of the iconographic evidence challenges long-standing interpretations of the deities Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury at Baalbek (Heliopolis). Contrary to prior assumptions that Jupiter was a solar deity linked to Hadad or that Mercury represented a dying-and-rising Dionysian figure, this study proposes more plausible alternatives. By analyzing visual representations, it argues that these gods were not merely solar or syncretic but held distinct symbolic roles, reshaping our understanding of their religious significance in ancient Heliopolis.
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