Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol world empire: an imperial city in a non-urban society

Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol Empire (AD 1206–1368), presents a unique case study of urbanism within a pastoral nomadic society. Unlike typical urbanization processes, Karakorum's development was deeply intertwined with political authority rather than natural population growth. By applying Michael E. Smith's urban attributes framework, this study reveals that Karakorum's existence relied on its political function and relationships with the hinterland, offering insights into how cities thrived in anti-urban environments. Comparisons with contemporary sites in Russia and Mongolia further highlight the distinct nature of steppe urbanism, emphasizing its dependence on imperial power dynamics.

Bemmann, J., & Reichert, S. (2020). Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol world empire: an imperial city in a non-urban society. Asian Archaeology, 4(2), 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-020-00039-x