Publications
Being-in-the-field: Ethnographic Observations on Archaeological Fieldwork in Central Mongolia
This study introduces the concept of 'ethnography of archaeological fieldwork' within the context of Central Mongolia, focusing on the Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. It reveals how archaeological knowledge production is not only a process rooted in the past but also deeply embedded in contemporary societal dynamics and pastoral landscapes. Through two fieldwork seasons (2023 and 2024), the research explores the daily life at an excavation site, the interplay between archaeological activities and existing infrastructures, and the reflexive perspective of the researcher as both insider and outsider. The findings underscore the potential for this approach to foster more ethical archaeological practices by integrating local contexts into the study of material culture.
Can dung pollen reveal livestock dietary preferences and grazing patterns in Central Mongolia?
Seasonal vegetation dynamics play the dominant role in shaping livestock dietary preferences and grazing patterns in Central Mongolia, according to the first palynological analysis of dung samples from sheep, goats, horses, and cattle/yaks. The study, conducted across steppe and river-meadow habitats during spring, summer, and autumn 2021, revealed that pollen composition in dung varies significantly with season—Cyperaceae in spring, Amaranthaceae and Poaceae in summer, and Artemisia in autumn—while livestock species and habitat exert secondary but notable effects. Small ruminants exhibit higher dietary diversity than large grazers, underscoring the potential of dung pollen as a proxy for both modern grazing ecology and palaeoecological reconstruction. This research provides critical insights into rangeland degradation concerns linked to increasing livestock numbers in Mongolia.
Environmental change and imperial land use in central Mongolia: a multiproxy lake record from the vicinity of Karakorum over the last 1260 years
A high-resolution, multiproxy analysis of Lake Deliin Burd sediments reveals that the Orkhon Valley's forest-steppe ecosystem in central Mongolia has been shaped by a complex interplay between climate variability and imperial land-use strategies over the last 1260 years. The study identifies increased fire frequency during the Khitan (∼800 cal. yr BP) and Mongol (∼630 cal. yr BP) periods, linked to higher woody fuel input, while coprophilous fungal spores and Poaceae Cerealia-type pollen indicate persistent agropastoral activities. These findings highlight the resilience and transformation of forest-steppe landscapes in response to shifting socio-political regimes, offering new insights into the long-term environmental history and heritage value of Inner Asia's imperial centers.
Footholds for Peopling the Valley of the Middle Reaches of the Selenga River in the Early Upper Paleolithic
A new analysis of Upper Paleolithic sites in the Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape reveals that high-elevation locations (50–85 m above river level) likely served as strategic footholds for ancient populations, combining functions such as raw material sources, observation posts, logistical nodes, and habitation areas. Unlike lower-lying sites (10–40 m), these higher sites facilitated movement between major tributaries—Khaniy-Gol, Egijn-Gol, and Ikh-Tulberiin-Gol—while also offering access to hunting grounds in the Kharganyn-Gol valley. The study used cluster analysis of 52 sites based on elevation and distance from water, along with cost surface modeling to assess energy expenditure for movement, confirming the transit role of the Tolbor valley and its connectivity to adjacent regions.
Origins of Mongolian Urbanization and the Role of Towns in the Golden Horde
Mongolian urbanization in the 13th century, driven by strategic and economic needs, laid the foundation for the Golden Horde's rise as a global trade hub. The study reveals that towns like Karakorum and Sarai-Batu emerged not from existing settlements but were purpose-built to centralize wealth, facilitate governance, and integrate into international trade networks. Avarga, an early Mongol residence, served as a fortress for wealth protection, while Karakorum's location in the Orkhon Valley optimized communication, trade, and craft production. The Golden Horde's urban centers thrived by leveraging their economic potential, connecting Central Asia, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, but faced decline due to internal conflicts and Timur's invasions. This research combines archaeological evidence with written sources to trace the evolution of Mongolian urbanization and its global impact.
Preservation Challenges for Ancient Temples: Conservation Ethics in India and Mongolia
Conservation ethics for ancient temples must balance authenticity, ritual continuity, and stakeholder engagement to address complex preservation challenges. A comparative study of Ajanta–Ellora (India) and Erdene Zuu Monastery (Mongolia) reveals that while India focuses on managing living, ritual-intensive sites, Mongolia grapples with reconstructing destroyed sites while preserving material authenticity. The research integrates international frameworks like the Venice Charter and Nara Document, alongside local reports and peer-reviewed scholarship, to highlight how physical deterioration, tourism pressures, and historical violence shape preservation decisions. It advocates for culturally sensitive, stakeholder-driven conservation strategies that prioritize ethical considerations and sustainable management of sacred heritage.
Water for the Khan: Unveiling the Hidden Well of Karabalgasun
A groundbreaking excavation of Karabalgasun, the ancient Uyghur capital in Mongolia's Orkhon Valley, revealed a deep, intricately designed well and a trove of artifacts that shed light on the site's political significance as a Silk Road hub. Among the discoveries were lacquered wooden poles, Tang dynasty jade books with imperial decrees, high-status objects, and a gyrfalcon skeleton, offering insights into courtly culture, diplomacy, and ritual practices spanning the Uyghur and Khitan periods. The study also pioneered trehalose-based conservation techniques in Mongolia, successfully preserving waterlogged wooden artifacts for research and exhibition. This multidisciplinary approach not only advances our understanding of Karabalgasun's role in trade and prestige but also sets a new standard for archaeological conservation in the region.
About the recently discovered settlement in the Khurkh river valley
A recently discovered fortified settlement in the Khurkh River Valley, identified through satellite remote sensing and confirmed by field research in 2023 and 2025, provides new insights into the spatial distribution of Xiongnu-period settlements. The settlement, located near significant aristocratic burial complexes (Duurlig Nars and Bor Bulag), offers critical data for understanding the function and purpose of Xiongnu fortified structures in Mongolia's Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape—a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Future research will focus on analyzing rectangular irrigation channels surrounding the site to clarify its role, potentially shedding light on ancient water management practices.
Buddhist monuments in the Orkhon-Tuul region
Archaeological and historical evidence reveals the Orkhon-Tuul region as a pivotal center of cultural, economic, and religious exchange from the 8th to 17th centuries, where successive ethnic groups—Uyghurs, Khidans, and Mongols—interacted, shaping Mongolia's cultural landscape. The study highlights the evolution of Buddhism in the region, transitioning from a minor influence during the Uyghur Kaganate to dominance by the 17th century, alongside the development of urbanization and legal systems. Fortification structures, administrative complexes, and religious sites—such as Ordubalyk (Khar Balgas), Khar Bukhyn Balgas, and Chin Tolgoi—demonstrate the layered impact of these groups on the landscape. By integrating written sources with archaeological findings, the research deepens understanding of ethno-confessional dynamics in central Mongolia.
Geochemical Assessment of Macro- and Microelements Content in the Soil–Plant System in the Conditions of the Selenga Aimag in Northern Mongolia
A geochemical assessment of the Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape reveals significant variations in macro- and microelement content within its soil-plant system. The study found that while elements like cobalt, copper, chromium, iron, and cadmium exceed their Clarke values, arsenic and mercury show particularly high concentrations, with arsenic levels up to six times higher and mercury up to 600 times higher than baseline values. Despite these elevated soil levels, wheat grain in the region exhibits lower-than-expected arsenic and mercury content, suggesting a protective mechanism in plants that limits toxic element uptake. The research used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to analyze 14 elements across soils and wheat grains, identifying correlations between element accumulation and agrochemical soil properties such as humus content, acidity, and salinity. These findings underscore the need for further investigation into plant physiological responses to environmental contaminants in this ecologically significant landscape.
Tracking data reveal high spatiotemporal consistency in migration of the threatened Taiga Bean Goose (Anser fabalis middendorffii) along the East Asian-Australasian flyway
Research tracking the migration of the threatened Taiga Bean Goose (Anser fabalis middendorffii) from 2017 to 2021 reveals high spatiotemporal consistency in their annual migration along the East Asian-Australasian flyway. The geese consistently used familiar stopover and wintering sites, with strong temporal consistency in departure and arrival at summering sites but more variability at wintering sites. Key stopover locations included the Hongyashan Reservoir and Hetao Plain in China, and the Orkhon River Valley in Mongolia, with a notable preference for repeatedly used sites where stopover durations were significantly longer. Alarmingly, only 13% of these critical stopover sites are currently protected, highlighting an urgent need for conservation action to safeguard this underprotected yet consistently utilized habitat.
Archaeological Studies of Axel Heikel in Transbaikalia
A rare surviving photographic record of a lost deer stone from the Sanniy Mys burial ground, captured by Finnish researcher Axel Olai Heikel during his 19th-century expedition in Transbaikalia, offers valuable insight into prehistoric rock art. Heikel's expedition, conducted between Mongolia and Transbaikalia, documented monuments of writing, runic steles, and inscriptions in ancient Uighur and Chinese languages along the Orkhon River valley. His research also included archaeological sites near Troitskosavsk, Verkhneudinsk, and the Uda River valley, where he studied khereksurs, slab graves, deer stones, rock paintings, and steles with inscriptions. While Heikel's publication holds primarily historiographical significance today, his photographic documentation provides an enduring record of a lost archaeological artifact.
Holocene vegetation, fire, climate dynamics and human impact in the upper Orkhon Valley of the Khangai Mountains, Mongolia
A continuous decline of tree species, favoring grassland expansion, has been observed in the Upper Orkhon Valley, Mongolia, over the past 7400 years. This shift coincides with changes in fire activity and human influence, with intense but infrequent fires during the mid-Holocene transitioning to more frequent, less severe fires around 5000 years ago. Evidence of human activity, such as pastoralism and grazing, emerges around 3200 years BP, though its impact remains minimal. The study leverages pollen analysis from a lacustrine sediment core to reconstruct vegetation dynamics, fire regimes, and early human presence in this UNESCO-listed forest-steppe landscape.
Lithic Industry in Khairkhan Cave, Mongolia
A newly discovered Paleolithic site, Khairkhan Cave in Mongolia's Khangai Mountains, provides rare insights into Upper Paleolithic human activity in the region. Excavations in 2022 uncovered a four-layer stratigraphic sequence, with layers 1-3 containing significant cultural and faunal remains, particularly layer 3, which yielded the most extensive archaeological assemblage. This industry, dating tentatively to between 20 and 30 thousand years ago (ka BP), is characterized by a flake-based toolkit with minor laminar components, utilizing both imported and local quartz raw materials. The presence of woolly rhinoceros remains and specific knapping techniques suggest an advanced stage of the Upper Paleolithic, comparable to other sites in Mongolia's Tolbor and Orkhon valleys. This discovery contributes to the understanding of Paleolithic adaptation and technological development in mountainous regions.
Results of the Xiongnu and Uyghur settlement and ruins located in the Orkhon-Tamir valley
Recent archaeological research in Mongolia's Orkhon-Tamir Valley has uncovered unique settlement patterns and urban ruins from the Xiongnu and Uyghur periods, challenging previous understandings of these civilizations. The study, conducted by a Mongolian-Japanese team, identified distinct architectural features and craft production areas around newly discovered Xiongnu sites, such as Khustyn Bulag, which share similarities with other Xiongnu walled settlements. Additionally, excavations in the capital city of Karabalgas revealed complex urban structures from the Uyghur period. By comparing these findings with known Xiongnu and Uyghur settlements in central Mongolia and creating aerial maps, researchers aimed to clarify the characteristics and historical significance of these sites. The study suggests revisions to existing theories about the organization and development of these ancient cultures.
Spatial–Temporal Analysis of the Air Temperature, Precipitation, and Aridity Index on the Territory of the Lake Baikal Basin
A spatial-temporal analysis of the Lake Baikal Basin reveals significant and contrasting climate trends between its Russian and Mongolian regions from 1975 to 2019. Annual air temperatures have risen most notably in the Mongolian part, particularly in mountainous areas like Khangai and Khentii, with the warm period contributing the bulk of this increase. Precipitation patterns show marked variability, with a 40% rise in cold-period precipitation in Mongolia compared to just 4% in Russia. Two distinct arid zones have emerged: one in southern Bulgan and eastern Arkhangai aimags (Mongolia), and another in central Buryatia (Russia). The study utilized data from 84 weather stations, processed via GIS tools like ArcMap and QGIS, alongside Python for statistical analysis, to construct detailed climate rasters. These findings underscore the basin's complex climatic dynamics, with implications for ecosystem stability and conservation efforts.
Using Virtual Endocast to Measure Total Endocranial Volume of Orkhon Hyena Fossils
A new method using virtual endocasts derived from computer tomography (CT) scans has revealed insights into the brain volume of fossil hyenas from the Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. The study measured the total endocranial volume, including the frontal sinuses, of a cave hyena skull from the Bag-Nariinam hollow in Mongolia. This non-destructive approach allowed researchers to compare the findings with known brain volumes of extant and extinct hyaenids, providing evidence that Mongolia may have been one of the last habitats for cave hyenas during the Upper Pleistocene. The research also sheds light on the dispersal history of two cave hyena species—Crocuta spelaea and Crocuta ultima—in Asia, with Mongolia serving as a potential border between their ranges. Additionally, findings from Tsagaan-Agui Cave suggest that hyenas persisted in this region until the middle of the Last Glacial Maximum, long after their disappearance from Siberia.
Excavations of New Burial Mounds of the Xianbei Period in Northern Mongolia: The Burial Complex at Mount Gaviluy in Khongor Sum of Darkhan-Uul Aimag
Archaeological research in northern Mongolia has uncovered over 10,000 burial mounds and three elite burial complexes from the Xianbei period, providing new insights into the political and cultural landscape of the region. The study, conducted between 2018 and 2022, focused on the Orkhon and Selenge river valleys, where excavations revealed intricate details about the burial practices and social hierarchy of the Xianbei people. Notably, the discovery of a third elite burial complex near Mount Khongor ovoo in Baruunburen somon offers significant evidence for understanding the political center and societal structure of this ancient civilization.
newly discovered walled enclosure of the Mongol Empire period in the Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
A previously undocumented walled enclosure from the Mongol Empire period (13th/14th century CE) has been discovered on the eastern bank of the Orkhon River in Arkhangai aimag, Mongolia. This rare find, documented using a fixed-wing eBee X drone for high-resolution aerial surveying, provides new evidence of intensive urban development during the Mongol Empire's peak. The enclosure's design and associated artifacts suggest it was a short-lived but significant settlement, contributing to our understanding of the Orkhon Valley's cultural landscape as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Comparative analysis with known examples from the period further contextualizes its role in regional trade and governance.
The Turkic Runic Inscriptions: The Problems of Dating and Interpretation Difficulties
A reassessment of the Turkic runic inscriptions challenges long-standing assumptions about their historical timeline, suggesting that many of these monuments—previously thought to date from the 6th to 10th centuries AD—are significantly more recent, likely originating in the 15th to 17th centuries. This revision is supported by the exceptional preservation of some inscriptions and their association with the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khongorai tribal formation, which flourished until its forced resettlement in 1703. The study highlights the difficulties in precise dating and interpretation, noting that many translations are speculative rather than definitive. While the Turkic runic script was geographically limited to regions like the Minusinsk basin, Altai, and the Orkhon Valley, its late survival contradicts earlier narratives of its abandonment by the 10th century.
Contrasting late Miocene to present weathering regimes across the Khangay Mountains, Mongolia
Research reveals that the Khangay Mountains in central Mongolia experienced warmer and slightly more humid conditions from the late Miocene to Pliocene compared to today, aligning with long-term paleoclimate records. This finding was derived through an analysis of geochemical data from paleosols buried beneath basaltic lava flows, using indices like the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) and Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA). The study provides insights into landscape development and weathering regimes in this upland intracontinental setting, contrasting chemical and physical weathering processes over million-year scales. This work contributes to understanding late Cenozoic climate transitions and their impacts on terrestrial landscapes.
Middle Paleolithic of the Gobi Altai
Re-analysis of archaeological collections from Tsagaan Agui Cave, Mongolia, reveals a non-Levallois Mousterian lithic industry distinct from previously studied Middle Paleolithic sites in the Orkhon and Kharganyn Gol valleys. This finding places the cave's industry within a refined chronological sequence, offering new insights into regional stone tool production during this period. The study combines technological and typological analyses of 1980s collections with recent excavations to identify transitional tool types and primary flaking systems, while comparing these complexes to those in Siberia and eastern Asia. Preliminary results suggest a unique non-Levallois Mousterian character, challenging assumptions about Middle Paleolithic tool traditions in the Gobi Altai. The research also highlights untapped potential for interdisciplinary scientific investigations in northern Mongolia's archaeological landscapes.
Area-Optimized, Rapid UAV-Borne Recording of Medieval Heritage in Central Asia
Research demonstrates that consumer-grade UAV technology can efficiently record large areas of medieval heritage sites, even under strict time constraints. The study developed optimized workflows for rapid data acquisition, focusing on two Central Asian case studies: the Medieval fortifications in Bukhara (Uzbekistan) and the Orkhon Valley (Mongolia). By integrating videogrammetry with single-shot imagery, the approach ensures gap-free coverage while maximizing area coverage. The findings provide practical guidelines for low-cost, off-the-shelf hardware and software, offering a scalable solution for documenting heritage sites that cannot be preserved in their entirety.
Late Pleistocene Paleoenvironments and Episodic Human Occupations in the Orkhon Valley of Central Mongolia
A new study of the Orkhon Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in central Mongolia, reveals that human occupation during the Late Pleistocene was closely tied to shifting paleoenvironmental conditions. Research at Moiltyn-am and other Paleolithic sites indicates that a relatively humid climate prevailed during Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS-3), followed by aridification and sediment redeposition. Faunal analysis suggests that humans primarily hunted Bos sp. and equids, with Caprinae becoming more significant in the Early Upper Paleolithic. The study uses rare earth elements, Strontium isotopes, and faunal assemblages to reconstruct past climates and human adaptations, providing insights into the complex interactions between early human societies and their environments.
Tectonic Generation of Pseudotachylytes and Volcanic Rocks: Deep-Seated Magma Sources of Crust-Mantle Transition in the Baikal Rift System, Southern Siberia
Research reveals that the tectonic generation of volcanic rocks in the Kamar-Stanovoy Zone of Hot Transtension (KSZHT) within the Baikal Rift System (BRS) stems from deep-seated crust-mantle transition (CMT) magmatic sources, distinct from ocean island basalts. These findings, based on geochemical data and seismic tomography models, suggest that the KSZHT magmas formed between 18.1 and 11.7 million years ago due to delamination of a thickened root part of the South Baikal Orogen, a process linked to present-day seismogenic deformations in the region. Similar CMT sources are also identified for melts erupted in the past 17 million years from adjacent areas, indicating cooperative tectonic effects in the Japan-Baikal Geodynamic Corridor and Indo-Asian interactional regions.
Vegetation degradation assessment in the agricultural zone of Northern Mongolia
A significant portion of the Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape, particularly in Northern Mongolia's Selenge province, exhibits severe vegetation degradation. Research reveals that 46.7% of the area is lightly degraded, while 30.4% faces very strong degradation, primarily due to intensive summer grazing in river valleys and mountainous regions. Moderate degradation (3.3%) often occurs in winter grazing lands or properly managed areas, whereas light degradation (13.9%) is more prevalent in forested sub-provinces like Eruu, Tushig, and Shaamar. However, these regions still grapple with mining and deforestation pressures. The study utilized vegetation community mapping to assess degradation patterns across sub-provinces such as Saikhan, Orkhon, Javkhlant, Sant, Orkhontuul, and Baruunburen, highlighting critical areas requiring conservation intervention.
Changes and Causes of Environmental Characteristics of Ogii Lake and Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
Research reveals that while Ogii Lake and the Old Orkhon River maintain clean water quality, phosphate (PO4³⁻) concentrations are significantly higher—2.7 to 3.4 times the standard level—in 2018. This increase is linked to livestock distribution around the lake and heightened discharge following summer rainfall. The study analyzed water samples from springs, streams, the lake, and groundwater over two summers (2017–2018) using standardized methods, alongside a questionnaire assessing anthropogenic impacts. It also tracked waste generation from livestock and tourists, vegetation changes via NDVI, and lake surface area shifts over decades. Findings underscore the need for sustainable management to mitigate environmental risks in this Ramsar-listed wetland.
Environmental protection and Tourism
Sustainable tourism development in Mongolia's Orkhon Valley National Park (OVNP) presents both opportunities and challenges for balancing local livelihoods, nomadic culture preservation, and environmental protection. The study highlights that OVNP, a key destination for its natural beauty, biodiversity, and historical heritage, requires strategic approaches to mitigate the impacts of growing tourism while supporting traditional lifestyles. Research focuses on integrating conservation efforts with tourism planning to safeguard watersheds, rare species, and cultural sites. The approach involves analyzing the park's ecological and socio-cultural significance, assessing current tourism trends, and proposing sustainable management strategies. This work underscores the need for policies that harmonize economic benefits with environmental stewardship in protected areas.
Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol world empire: an imperial city in a non-urban society
Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol Empire (AD 1206–1368), presents a unique case study of urbanism within a pastoral nomadic society. Unlike typical urbanization processes, Karakorum's development was deeply intertwined with political authority rather than natural population growth. By applying Michael E. Smith's urban attributes framework, this study reveals that Karakorum's existence relied on its political function and relationships with the hinterland, offering insights into how cities thrived in anti-urban environments. Comparisons with contemporary sites in Russia and Mongolia further highlight the distinct nature of steppe urbanism, emphasizing its dependence on imperial power dynamics.
Luminescence Dating of an Ancient Walled Settlement in Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
A new chronology for an ancient walled settlement in the Orkhon Valley, Mongolia, suggests construction around 785±80 AD, challenging earlier archaeological estimates of 906–1125 AD. Researchers used optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating on quartz samples, applying the post-IR OSL method to small aliquots as proxies for single-grain measurements. Statistical analysis revealed a dose distribution with a central age model (CAM) De of 5.14±0.10 Gy and over dispersion of 47.5%, while the minimum age model (MAM) De was 3.7±0.6 Gy. The fast quartz post-IR OSL component, free from suspected partial bleaching, supported the earlier construction date. However, the MAM age aligns with independent evidence for reconstruction or reuse of the settlement around 1090±80 AD. This study demonstrates the potential of luminescence dating for young samples in cultural landscapes and refines our understanding of the Orkhon Valley's historical timeline.
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