Publications
Do environmental conditions determine whether salt driven decay leads to powdering or flaking in historic Reigate Stone masonry at the Tower of London?
Research at the Tower of London reveals that while environmental conditions influence salt-driven decay in Reigate Stone masonry, they do not solely determine whether it leads to powdering or flaking. The study found that mineralogical composition and pre-existing damage play significant roles in shaping decay patterns. By analyzing salt content using ion chromatography and simulating decay through accelerated ageing, the team demonstrated that NaCl dominates in powdering while NaNO3 is more prevalent in flaking. However, physical variations in the stone, including mineralogy and historical features like crusts and cracks, were more influential than environmental factors in determining decay rates and patterns.
Prisoners, Sanctuary‐Seekers, and Workers: Jews at the Tower of London, 1189–1290
A groundbreaking analysis reveals the Tower of London's pivotal role in medieval Jewish history, serving as a hub for prisoners, sanctuary-seekers, and workers from 1189 to 1290. The study highlights that the Constable of the Tower held unique authority over England's Jewry, including the power to arrest Jews nationwide and preside over legal cases involving them. Notably, between 1278 and 1279, at least 600 Jews were detained on charges of coin-clipping. This research, derived from a comprehensive project by Historic Royal Palaces, is the first dedicated exploration of Jewish experiences at the Tower, offering detailed biographies of every known individual from this period.
The Peculiar Case of a Royal Peculiar: A Problem of Faculty at the Tower of London
A rare surviving example of early Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical architecture, the late eleventh-century Chapel of St John the Evangelist (St John's) within the Tower of London, stands as a testament to the site's layered history. This study delves into the complex faculty issues surrounding the chapel, highlighting its unique significance even among the Tower's many notable features. The research explores the chapel's origins, tracing back to a ninth-century house-church, and examines its role as a burial place for prominent historical figures, including queens Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard, and Lady Jane Grey, alongside Cardinal John Fisher and Sir Thomas More, who are now venerated as martyrs in the Roman Catholic Church. The study employs historical analysis and architectural context to shed light on the chapel's enduring importance within the Tower complex.
In Situ, Non-Destructive Testing for Evaluating the Role of Pointing Mortar in Preventive Conservation Strategies. A Case-Study on Reigate Stone at the Wardrobe Tower, Tower of London
Research at the Tower of London's Wardrobe Tower reveals that hydraulic lime mortar (NHL3.5) less effectively regulates moisture in Reigate Stone masonry compared to lime putty mortar, yet older NHL mortars can perform similarly despite initial incompatibility. Non-destructive testing over two years showed that while pointing mortar type influences stone moisture regulation, its impact is secondary to the stone's inherent properties and micro-contextual factors like exposure and topography. The study underscores the need for tailored conservation strategies addressing specific decay mechanisms, including additional protective measures against moisture ingress, to ensure sustainable preservation of vulnerable historic masonry.
Assessing the Long-term Success of Reigate Stone Conservation at Hampton Court Palace and the Tower of London
Inherited stone mineralogy, past decay pathways, and current environmental conditions significantly influence the ongoing degradation of Reigate stone, overshadowing the effectiveness of conservation treatments. While wax, limewash, silane, and ammonium tartrate methods have offered partial protection at the Tower of London and Hampton Court Palace, no single treatment has universally halted decay. Non-destructive and minimally-destructive testing revealed that ammonium tartrate's success varies, suggesting that intrinsic stone properties and environmental factors play a more critical role than treatment history in long-term preservation outcomes.
Oxygen isotope dating of oak and elm timbers from the portcullis windlass, Byward Tower, Tower of London
Researchers successfully dated oak and elm timbers from the portcullis windlass mechanism in the Byward Tower of the Tower of London using a novel oxygen isotope dendrochronology method. The study determined that the oak timbers were felled in winter AD 1656/7, while the associated elm shaft was cut after AD 1648. This is the first application of this technique to date elm, demonstrating its potential for dating non-oak species. The findings build on previous dendrochronological efforts that had failed to date these samples, advancing the use of stable oxygen isotopes in archaeological timber analysis.
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