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Early excavators: Heinrich Schliemann and Wilhelm Dörpfeld (Chapter 5)

Archaeological Site of Troy — 2013 — WHEBA0D53A2C1

Early excavations at Troy revealed the layered history of Hisarlik, with Heinrich Schliemann identifying multiple cities built atop one another. Initially believing Troy II to be the setting of Homer's epics, Schliemann later corrected this to Troy VI after further analysis. However, his methods were marred by questionable practices, including the potential falsification of 'Priam's treasure,' which predated the Trojan War by a millennium. Following Schliemann's death, Wilhelm Dörpfeld took over, meticulously excavating untouched fortifications, providing deeper insights into Troy's architectural and historical complexity.

Early mediaeval hoard of iron objects from Rujkovac and similar finds from the central Balkans

Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius — 2013 — WHE7341B8F4BC

A rare early medieval hoard of iron objects, discovered near the village of Rujkovac in southern Serbia, provides new insights into metallurgical and economic activities in the Central Balkans during the 10th to 11th centuries. The hoard, likely belonging to a Byzantine context, includes tools such as a pickaxe, mattock, scythe, plowshare, and four Hungarian-type stirrups, which were dated using typological analysis. Similar finds from the region, including those from Gamzigrad-Romuliana (Palace of Galerius), Strezevo (Macedonia), and others, suggest a renewed economic and agricultural activity during this period, contradicting previous misinterpretations about their occurrence in the Central Balkans. The study highlights the significance of these hoards in understanding the population growth, metallurgical revival, and economic renewal in Byzantium and its surrounding regions.

Early Pleistocene palaeoenvironments at the time of the Homo antecessor settlement in the Gran Dolina cave (Atapuerca, Spain)

Archaeological Site of Atapuerca — 2013 — WHEE210E5CD71

A warm and humid climate, with temperatures up to 3.1°C higher during summer than present-day levels, characterized the Gran Dolina cave at Atapuerca around 0.8 million years ago when Homo antecessor inhabited the region. This study estimates that rainfall was also significantly higher (+407.2 mm) and primarily occurred in spring and autumn. The environment featured humid meadows and riparian woody habitats, suggesting a savannah-like corridor along the Ebro valley facilitated the recolonization of high inland plateaus by Homo antecessor after glacial periods. Researchers applied mutual climatic range and habitat weighting methods to herpetofaunal assemblages to reconstruct these palaeoenvironments.

Eastern Pacific reef fish responses to coral recovery following El Niño disturbances

Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection — 2013 — WHEC9735DB2DF

A long-term study at Uva Island reef, within Coiba National Park, revealed that coral recovery following El Niño disturbances significantly influenced reef fish community structure. Despite no direct fish mortalities during the 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 El Niño events, live coral cover plummeted to nearly 0% before steadily recovering to ~35% by 2010. Fish species richness peaked at 15-20% coral cover but declined as cover increased further. Benthic invertivores showed a parabolic increase in density, peaking at ~20% live coral cover, while mixed diet feeders declined with rising coral cover. Facultative corallivores exhibited an asymptotic relationship with coral cover, suggesting trophic resource availability drives fish community dynamics during reef recovery.

Eco-Restoration on the Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries after 4.20 Earthquake

Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries - Wolong, Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains — 2013 — WHE7332A660F8

The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, including Wolong, Mt Siguniang, and Jiajin Mountains, suffered significant ecological damage following the 2013 Lushan earthquake. This disaster not only devastated local infrastructure and livelihoods but also disrupted the natural ecosystem, leading to changes in geomorphic features and casualties among wildlife, including the critically endangered giant panda. The study assesses the extent of this damage, highlighting its implications for biodiversity conservation. Given the giant panda's status as a global symbol of wildlife protection, recognized by UNESCO and organizations like IUCN and WWF, the findings underscore the urgent need for targeted eco-restoration strategies to preserve these sanctuaries. The research provides critical insights into post-disaster ecological recovery, offering a foundation for reconstructing damaged habitats and safeguarding one of China's most iconic species.

Ecological Aesthetic of Wind Environment about the Circular Earth Building in Fujian, China

Fujian Tulou — 2013 — WHE9B7932EF59

The Eryi Lou, the largest circular Tulou in Fujian, China, exemplifies ecological building design by harmonizing with its topography and local climate. Research reveals that its architectural features—such as Feng Shui-oriented entrances, courtyard layouts, and fourth-floor windows—enhance cross-ventilation and heat dissipation, aligning with ecological aesthetics principles of local and national significance. Using GIS analysis and on-site wind environment measurements, the study demonstrates how traditional Tulou design integrates aesthetic appeal with functional efficiency, offering a sustainable model for modern urban development. This symbiotic relationship between architecture and environment underscores its potential as an exemplar for future green building practices.

Ecological aspects of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the gallery forest of Brasilia National Park, Brazil, with an emphasis on potential vectors of yellow fever

Brasilia — 2013 — WHEC98E94BD1F

A comprehensive study of mosquito populations in Brasília National Park's gallery forest revealed no flavivirus infections among 2,677 culicid specimens analyzed, despite identifying 29 species with distinct vertical and seasonal distributions. The research, conducted from September 2010 to August 2011, found that ground-level mosquito populations surged during the rainy season, with Limatus durhamii uniquely favoring the canopy. Potential yellow fever vectors like Haemagogus leucocelaenus and Aedes scapularis showed low abundance in the dry season, underscoring the need for continued entomological monitoring to mitigate yellow fever transmission risks in vulnerable areas of Brazil's Federal District.

Ecological Assessment of the Kannellya Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) Forest Complex

Sinharaja Forest Reserve — 2013 — WHE02DE3F00EE

Kanneliya Dediyalala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) Forest Complex ranks second only to Sinharaja in Sri Lanka for its conservation significance, with exceptional biodiversity, endemism, and hydrological importance. A plant-ecological survey conducted between November 1993 and January 1994 recommended Kanneliya be designated a strictly protected area with buffer zones, while the other two reserves should undergo sustained management for multiple uses. The study highlights its critical role in conservation, providing insights that could inform broader forest protection strategies.

Ecological similarities between two Mediterranean wetlands: Sidi Boughaba (North-West Morocco) and the Doñana National Park (South-West Spain)

Doñana National Park — 2013 — WHE8E1269FC89

A limnological comparison of two Mediterranean wetlands, Merja Sidi Boughaba (North-West Morocco) and Doñana National Park (South-West Spain), reveals striking ecological similarities driven by shared palaeoenvironmental histories and hydrological processes. Both sites, designated Ramsar wetlands on Atlantic coastal dune systems with Mediterranean climates, exhibit comparable physico-chemical conditions, including a slight disproportion of magnesium over calcium due to oceanic influence. The study highlights their rich submersed macrophyte communities, particularly dense charophyte beds, supported by high primary production and biodiversity. Unlike temperate deep lakes, these shallow aquatic systems show no significant correlation between chlorophyll concentrations and phosphorus levels, reflecting efficient nutrient recycling through sediments and strong seasonal water-level fluctuations. This research underscores the value of regional-scale comparisons in understanding Mediterranean wetland dynamics.

Ecologies of Falling in Yosemite National Park

Yosemite National Park — 2013 — WHEB9953FECD2

Falling in Yosemite National Park is not merely a physical act but a complex interplay of place, agency, and identity that shapes human experience. This study reveals how the performance of falling—whether intentional or accidental—becomes a means to explore relationships between individuals and their environment. By analyzing these interactions, the research demonstrates that falling can serve as a performative act, influencing perceptions of self and surroundings. The approach combines reflective observation with performance analysis, offering a unique lens through which to understand human-environmental dynamics in iconic natural landscapes like Yosemite.

Ecology and Conservation of Estuarine Ecosystems

iSimangaliso Wetland Park – Maputo National Park — 2013 — WHE8CEA361726

St Lucia, the world's oldest protected estuary and Africa's largest, faces unprecedented conservation challenges due to global change. This comprehensive volume synthesizes over 60 years of research on its biodiversity, geological origins, hydrology, and management strategies, serving as a critical model for estuarine conservation worldwide. The study integrates long-term data to address the impacts of environmental shifts and provides actionable insights for rehabilitation efforts, emphasizing the need for adaptive management in similar ecosystems globally.

Ecology of Sundarban, Bangladesh

The Sundarbans — 2013 — WHE7D69AAF38E

The Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove wetland spanning 1 million hectares (60% in Bangladesh and 40% in India), is a biodiversity hotspot with significant ecological roles. This study highlights its critical functions: coastal protection against erosion and tidal waves, fishery resource generation, and provision of forestry products. It supports an extraordinary diversity of flora—35 true mangrove species (out of 50 globally), 334 plant species, and rich faunal diversity, including the endangered Royal Bengal Tiger, wild buffalo, and 25 bird species. The dominant tree species are Sundry (Heritiera fomes, 73%) and Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha, 16%). The research provides a comprehensive assessment of the Sundarbans' ecological structure, emphasizing its global importance as a unique mangrove ecosystem.

Ecophysiology of Two Liana Species Calamus Ovoideus and Coscinium Fenestratum Under Different Canopy Removal Treatments

Sinharaja Forest Reserve — 2013 — WHE6A01C59206

Two liana species, Calamus ovoideus and Coscinium fenestratum, exhibit significant growth and physiological responses to varying canopy removal treatments in Pinus caribaea plantations near Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka. After eight years, both species showed greater height increments under open-canopy conditions compared to closed-canopy controls, with C. ovoideus thriving best in the three-pine-rows removal treatment and C. fenestratum showing no significant height difference across treatments but higher root collar diameter growth in canopy removal plots. Physiological studies revealed that C. ovoideus had the highest photosynthetic rate in the one-pine-removed treatment, while C. fenestratum performed best under full canopy removal. The study demonstrates that these lianas can successfully establish and grow in monoculture Pinus plantations, offering potential for agroforestry integration in Sri Lanka's lowland wet zone.

Ecosystem impacts of folivory and frugivory by Japanese macaques in two temperate forests in Yakushima

Yakushima — 2013 — WHE2B118BBD26

Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) on Yakushima Island have a negligible impact on leaf production but significantly influence fruit consumption. While their folivory accounted for only about 0.04% of total leaf production—far less than insect folivory—they consumed 6-40% of the fruit production for three major fleshy-fruited species, rivaling bird consumption (32-75%). This suggests that macaque frugivory could play a substantial role in shaping forest dynamics. Researchers estimated consumption through direct observation of macaque groups over a year and calculated leaf and fruit production by accounting for litter fall and other consumers.

Edifice strength and magma transfer modulation at Piton de la Fournaise volcano

Pitons Management Area — 2013 — WHE485E9EA947

Piton de la Fournaise volcano exhibits nonlinear magma transfer dynamics, where strain weakening during distal eruptions triggers horizontal magma movement and resets eruptive cycles. The study used Drücker-Prager elastoplastic rheology to model the volcanic edifice, revealing that friction angles shift from 15° during distal eruptions to >30° in interdistal periods, indicating plastic deformation in the eastern flank relaxes elastic stress. This challenges the linear elasticity paradigm, suggesting magma transfer discretization arises from the volcano's nonlinear response rather than supply changes alone.

Effect of Extreme Floods on the Archaeological Sites of Persepolis and Naghsh-e-Rostam, Iran

Persepolis — 2013 — WHE7BC11B12CA

Extreme floods pose a significant risk to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Persepolis and Naghsh-e-Rostam, Iran. A study using hydrological modeling revealed that while a 10,000-year return period flood would not inundate these sites, a probable maximum flood could submerge parts of the Southern Barzan and Platform at Persepolis. The research estimated peak flows for extreme floods and employed the HEC-RAS model to simulate potential flooding scenarios. These findings underscore the need for routine assessments of archaeological sites to mitigate risks from such events over human timescales.

Effect of intra-row spacing on yield and quality of some onion varieties (Allium cepa L.) at Aksum, Northern Ethiopia

Aksum — 2013 — WHEA42BC31DCE

Optimal intra-row spacing and variety selection significantly enhance onion yield and quality at Aksum, Northern Ethiopia. Research found that a 10 cm spacing maximized plant height, leaf biomass, and dry matter content, while the closest spacing (5 cm) produced the highest total bulb yield. Among four varieties tested, 'Melkam' emerged as the top performer in both yield and average bulb weight, whereas 'Adama Red' resulted in higher unmarketable yields. The study, conducted between 2010 and 2011 using a randomized complete block design, provides actionable recommendations for farmers in the region to improve onion production efficiency.

Effect of the Number and Orientation of Fractures on the P-Wave Velocity Diminution: Application on the Building Stones of the Rabat Area (Morocco)

Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage — 2013 — WHEECD860FD2E

Research reveals that the P-wave velocity (Vp) in two types of Moroccan building stones, calcarenite and marble, diminishes with increasing fractures, but at rates dependent on both fracture number and orientation. While calcarenite shows variable Vp diminution due to its rougher, more heterogeneous structure, marble exhibits a steady decline linked to its smoother, granoblastic texture. Fractures parallel to the wave propagation direction slightly amplify Vp, acting as waveguides, whereas those at 45° cause less diminution than fractures at 25° or 90°. These trends persist under both dry and saturated conditions, reflecting the compressive nature of P-waves and their interaction with solid media. The study provides insights into how fracture characteristics influence seismic properties in building stones, relevant for heritage conservation.

Effects of adjacent land tenure on visitor use of Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia

Ningaloo Coast — 2013 — WHE02051CCA87

Land tenure adjacent to Ningaloo Marine Park significantly influences visitor behavior, including origin, length of stay, and recreational activities. A survey of 1208 visitors revealed that repeat visitation and site fidelity were particularly high on pastoral leases, while the percentage of respondents engaging in fishing, sailing sports, and snorkeling varied across different tenures. This study highlights the complex interplay between tenure types and visitor use, posing challenges for managers aiming to balance conservation and recreation goals while also contributing to a diverse range of visitor experiences.

Effects of Geo-Engineering Characteristics of the Soft Tuffs and Environmental Conditions on the Rock-Hewn Historical Structures at Zelve Open Air Museum, Cappadocia, Turkey

Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia — 2013 — WHE66CC04D7DE

Erosion rates of up to 1.24 mm per year threaten the stability of rock-hewn structures at Zelve Open Air Museum, Cappadocia. The study found that cyclic freezing-thawing and wetting-drying processes significantly accelerate degradation under saturated conditions, leading to failure modes like spalling and slabbing. These phenomena alter the geometry of openings, increasing structural instability. The research combined field observations with erosion measurements over five years to assess the impact of environmental factors on the soft tuffs surrounding historical structures.