World Heritage Identification Number: 1326
World Heritage since: 2010
Category: Mixed Cultural Heritage and Natural Heritage
WHE Type: Protected Areas & National Parks
Transboundary Heritage: No
Endangered Heritage: No
Country: 🇺🇸 United States of America
Continent: Americas
UNESCO World Region: Europe and North America
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Papahānaumokuākea: A Unique and Significant Marine Protected Area
Papahānaumokuākea, officially recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2010, is a remarkable marine national monument located approximately 250 kilometers northwest of the main Hawaiian Archipelago. Spanning over 1931 kilometers, this expansive region includes ten small, low-lying islands and atolls, along with their surrounding ocean, making it one of the largest marine protected areas (MPAs) globally.
More to come…UNESCO Description of the World Heritage Site
Papahānaumokuākea is a vast and isolated linear cluster of small, low lying islands and atolls, with their surrounding ocean, roughly 250 km to the northwest of the main Hawaiian Archipelago and extending over some 1931 km. The area has deep cosmological and traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture, as an ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death. On two of the islands, Nihoa and Makumanamana, there are archaeological remains relating to pre-European settlement and use. Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deepwater habitats, with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks, extensive coral reefs and lagoons. It is one of the largest marine protected areas (MPAs) in the world.
UNESCO Justification of the World Heritage Site
Criterion (iii): The well preserved heiau shrines on Nihoa and Mokumanamana, and their associated still living traditions are both distinctive to Hawai’i but, positioned within a wider 3,000 year old Pacific/Polynesian marae-ahu cultural continuum, they can be seen as an exceptional testimony to the strong cultural affiliation between Hawai’i, Tahiti and the Marquesas, resulting from long periods of migration.
Criterion (vi): The vibrant and persistent beliefs associated with Papahānaumokuākea are of outstanding significance as a key element in Pacific socio-cultural evolutionary patterns of beliefs and provide a profound understanding of the key roles that ancient marae-ahu, such as those found in Raiatea, the ‘centre’ of Polynesia, once fulfilled. These living traditions of the Hawaiians that celebrate the natural abundance of Papahānaumokuākea and its association with sacred realms of life and death, are directly and tangibly associated with the heiau shrines of Nihoa and Mokumanamana and the pristine islands beyond to the north-west.
Criterion (viii): The property provides an illustrating example of island hotspot progression, formed as a result of a relatively stationary hotspot and stable tectonic plate movement. Comprising a major portion of the world’s longest and oldest volcanic chain, the scale, distinctness and linearity of the manifestation of these geological processes in Papahānaumokuākea are unrivalled and have shaped our understanding of plate tectonics and hotspots. The geological values of the property are directly connected to the values in Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park and World Heritage property and jointly present a very significant testimony of hotspot volcanism.
Criterion (ix): The large area of the property encompasses a multitude of habitats, ranging from 4,600 m below sea level to 275 m above sea level, including abyssal areas, seamounts and submerged banks, coral reefs, shallow lagoons, littoral shores, dunes, dry grasslands and shrublands and a hypersaline lake. The size of the archipelago, its biogeographic isolation as well as the distance between islands and atolls has led to distinct and varied habitat types and species assemblages. Papahānaumokuākea constitutes a remarkable example of ongoing evolutionary and bio-geographical processes, as illustrated by its exceptional ecosystems, speciation from single ancestral species, species assemblages and very high degree of marine and terrestrial endemism. For example, a quarter of the nearly 7,000 presently known marine species in the area are endemic. Over a fifth of the fish species are unique to the archipelago while coral species endemism is over 40%. As many species and habitats remain to be studied in detail these numbers are likely to rise. Because of its isolation, scale and high degree of protection the property provides an unrivalled example of reef ecosystems which are still dominated by top predators such as sharks, a feature lost from most other island environments due to human activity.
Criterion (x): The terrestrial and marine habitats of Papahānaumokuākea are crucial for the survival of many endangered or vulnerable species the distributions of which are highly or entirely restricted to the area. This includes the critically endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal, four endemic bird species (Laysan Duck, Laysan Finch, Nihoa Finch and Nihoa Millerbird, and six species of endangered plants such as the Fan Palm. Papahānaumokuākea is a vital feeding, nesting, and nursery habitat for many other species, including seabirds, sea turtles and cetaceans. With 5.5 million sea birds nesting in the monument every year and 14 million residing in it seasonally it is collectively the largest tropical seabird rookery in the world, and includes 99% of the world’s Laysan Albatross (vulnerable) and 98% of the world’s Black-footed Albatross (endangered). Despite relatively low species diversity compared to many other coral reef environments, the property is thus of very high in situ biodiversity conservation value.
Encyclopedia Record: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is a World Heritage listed U.S. national monument encompassing 583,000 square miles (1,510,000 km2) of ocean waters, including ten islands and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was created in June 2006 with 140,000 square miles (360,000 km2) and expanded in August 2016 by moving its border to the limit of the exclusive economic zone, making it one of the world's largest protected areas. It is internationally known for its cultural and natural values as follows: The area has deep cosmological and traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture, as an ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death. On two of the islands, Nīhoa and Mokumanamana, there are archaeological remains relating to pre-European settlement and use. Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deepwater habitats, with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks, extensive coral reefs and lagoons.Additional Site Details
Area: 36,207,499 hectares
Number of Components: 1
(vi) — Directly associated with events or living traditions
(viii) — Outstanding example representing major earth stages
(ix) — Outstanding example representing ecological and biological processes
(x) — Contains most important habitats for biodiversity
Coordinates: 25.34907 , -170.14582
IUCN World Heritage Outlook
The 2025 Conservation Outlook on Papahānaumokuākea reports the following assessment:
Source: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) · View assessment
Image
Claire Fackler, CINMS, NOAA., Public domain
World Heritage Research
Discover scientific research and academic studies that deepen our understanding of Papahānaumokuākea from its history and significance to its conservation, management, and contemporary challenges.
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Modeling the dispersal of the cryptogenic alga Chondria tumulosa (Rhodophyta, Ceramiales) in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
A study modeling the dispersal of the invasive alga Chondria tumulosa in Papahānaumokuākea reveals that its spread is likely driven by fragments rafting on marine debris rather than tetraspores. Analysis using oceanographic data and connectivity modeling showed that while tetraspores had a negligible settlement rate (0.02%) at Kuaihelani, drifting fragments settled 195 times more effectively (3.85%), extending their potential range ~600 km further southeast toward the Main Hawaiian Islands. The findings highlight the role of marine flotsam in accelerating invasion dynamics and suggest targeted management strategies to mitigate its impact on benthic habitats.
Fumo, J. T., Powell, B. S., Kosaki, R. K., & Sherwood, A. R. (2024). Modeling the dispersal of the cryptogenic alga Chondria tumulosa (Rhodophyta, Ceramiales) in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Aquatic Invasions, 19(3), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.3391/ai.2024.19.3.135377
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Mai Ka Pō Mai: applying Indigenous cosmology and worldview to empower and transform a management plan for Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
A groundbreaking management plan for Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument integrates Indigenous Hawaiian cosmology and worldview, demonstrating how such approaches can empower Native Hawaiians and transform conservation practices. The study highlights that collaborative processes, long-term capacity-building, and an enabling policy environment fostered the creation of a guidance document rooted in place-based knowledge and human-nature reciprocity. This work underscores the potential for Indigenous-led management to enhance adaptive governance and co-management arrangements, offering a model for other protected areas considered sacred by Indigenous peoples.
Quiocho, K., Kikiloi, K., Kuoha, K., Miller, A., Wong, B. K., Kaʻaekuahiwi Pousima, H., Andrade, P., & Wilhelm, ʻ. (2023). Mai Ka Pō Mai: applying Indigenous cosmology and worldview to empower and transform a management plan for Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Ecology and Society, 28(3). https://doi.org/10.5751/es-14280-280321
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Rapid expansion of the invasive‐like red macroalga, Chondria tumulosa (Rhodophyta), on the coral reefs of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
A rapid and exponential expansion of the invasive-like red macroalga, Chondria tumulosa, has been observed on the coral reefs of Manawai Atoll within Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Initially detected in 2016 forming dense mats on the forereef, this alga exhibited a dramatic increase in abundance over five years. By 2021, unattached C. tumulosa formed extensive dark accumulations spanning 41.32 km in length and covering 101.34 km² in area, marking a 56-fold and 115-fold increase from its first detection, respectively. High-resolution satellite imagery revealed an exponential expansion rate of approximately 16.02 km per year in length and 44.75 km² per year in area. This study provides a comprehensive temporal and spatial analysis of the alga's spread since its discovery, offering critical data for ecologists and resource managers to monitor its invasive-like behavior.
Lopes, K. H., Miura, T., Hauk, B., Kosaki, R., Leonard, J., & Hunter, C. (2023). Rapid expansion of the invasive‐like red macroalga, Chondria tumulosa (Rhodophyta), on the coral reefs of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Journal of Phycology, 59(5), 1107–1111. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpy.13369
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A new species of Gibsmithia (Dumontiaceae, Rhodophyta) from mesophotic depths of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Hawai‘i, USA
Researchers have identified a new species of red algae, Gibsmithia punonomaewa, from the mesophotic depths (79–104 m) of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawaiʻi. This discovery increases the number of Gibsmithia species recorded from Hawaiʻi to three and highlights the unique characteristics of this species, including moderate thallus size, smooth and terete gelatinous lobes, presence of a stipe (often branched), globose carposporangia, and non-isodiametric shaped cells subtending tetrasporangia. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that G. punonomaewa is most closely related to species found in tropical and subtropical surface waters, contrasting with its dark mesophotic habitat. The study used molecular phylogenetic techniques to clarify the diversity of Dumontiaceae, including a tentative record of Dudresnaya babbittiana, pending type material sequencing.
Sherwood, A. R., Cabrera, F. C., Kalaiwaa, G., Fumo, J. T., Spalding, H. L., Kosaki, R. K., Wagner, D., & Paiano, M. O. (2022). A new species of Gibsmithia (Dumontiaceae, Rhodophyta) from mesophotic depths of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Hawai‘i, USA. Phycologia, 61(5), 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/00318884.2022.2093540
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Economic impacts of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument expansion on the Hawaii longline fishery
The expansion of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) in 2016 led to significant economic impacts on Hawaii's longline fishery. Specifically, catch per unit effort (CPUE) decreased by 7%, while revenue per trip dropped by 9%, amounting to a loss of $3.5 million over the first 16 months post-expansion. The study used difference-in-differences models with fixed effects to assess these impacts on vessels that previously fished extensively within the Monument Expanded Area (MEA). The findings suggest that fishers, displaced from traditional grounds, are still adapting to new fishing areas, leading to reduced efficiency and productivity.
Chan, H. L. (2020). Economic impacts of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument expansion on the Hawaii longline fishery. Marine Policy, 115, 103869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103869
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Taxonomic determination of the cryptogenic red alga, Chondria tumulosa sp. nov., (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta) from Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Hawai‘i, USA: A new species displaying invasive characteristics
Researchers have identified and described a new species of red alga, Chondria tumulosa, found in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Hawai‘i. This discovery stems from NOAA survey cruises in 2016 and 2019 that uncovered an undetermined seaweed rapidly covering benthic areas at Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Through light microscopy and molecular analysis—including mitochondrial COI barcode marker, plastidial rbcL gene, and nuclear SSU gene—the study confirmed the alga's unique genus-level placement within Rhodomelaceae. Chondria tumulosa is distinguished by its large, robust thalli, mat-forming tendency, and distinct morphological traits. While not meeting the criteria for an invasive species, its sudden appearance and rapid proliferation in this pristine, uninhabited island chain raise concerns about potential ecological impacts.
Sherwood, A. R., Huisman, J. M., Paiano, M. O., Williams, T. M., Kosaki, R. K., Smith, C. M., Giuseffi, L., & Spalding, H. L. (2020). Taxonomic determination of the cryptogenic red alga, Chondria tumulosa sp. nov., (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta) from Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Hawai‘i, USA: A new species displaying invasive characteristics. Plos One, 15(7), e0234358. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234358
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Mass coral bleaching due to unprecedented marine heatwave in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)
A unprecedented marine heatwave in 2014 triggered the most severe and widespread coral bleaching event recorded in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), with up to 91% bleaching at shallow habitats of Lisianski Island. This event, characterized by extreme heat stress, differed significantly from previous bleaching events due to variations in heat exposure and potential local acclimatization. Researchers analyzed in situ surveys and satellite data across four islands/atolls to assess the drivers of bleaching patterns, its impact on coral mortality and community structure, and long-term changes in heat stress. The study found that the 2014 event was unprecedented in terms of duration and intensity, with cumulative heat stress reaching around 20°C-weeks, and highlighted a significant increase in exposure to bleaching-level heat stress since 1982, underscoring the escalating threat of climate change to these fragile ecosystems.
Couch, C. S., Burns, J. H. R., Liu, G., Steward, K., Gutlay, T. N., Kenyon, J., Eakin, C. M., & Kosaki, R. K. (2017). Mass coral bleaching due to unprecedented marine heatwave in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands). Plos One, 12(9), e0185121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185121
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Papahānaumokuākea: Integrating Culture in the Design and Management of one of the World's Largest Marine Protected Areas
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the world's largest marine protected area and the first mixed conservation site in the U.S., demonstrates how integrating indigenous cultural knowledge with scientific management can enhance conservation outcomes. This biocultural approach, rooted in Native Hawaiian values and practices, has proven effective in managing both natural and cultural resources. The study highlights the importance of involving cultural practitioners in policy, education, and research, which has led to innovative strategies that respect traditional epistemologies and relationships with place. Recognized as a cultural seascape with deep spiritual significance for Native Hawaiians, Papahānaumokuākea serves as a global model for sustainable marine conservation.
Kikiloi, K., Friedlander, A. M., Wilhelm, ’., Lewis, N., Quiocho, K., ’Āila, W., & Kaho’ohalahala, S. (2017). Papahānaumokuākea: Integrating Culture in the Design and Management of one of the World’s Largest Marine Protected Areas. Coastal Management, 45(6), 436–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2017.1373450
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Latitudinal Trends and Drivers in the CO2–Carbonic Acid System of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
Coral reefs in the northern atolls of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) are particularly vulnerable to climate change and ocean acidification, according to a study analyzing latitudinal trends in marine carbon chemistry. Researchers found that surface seawater pH and CO₂ levels vary three times more near reefs than in open ocean waters, with this variability detectable up to 50 km away from the nearest coral ecosystems. The findings suggest that coral reef metabolism significantly influences local carbon chemistry, while environmental factors like temperature, wind speed, and water residence time further shape these conditions. The study also identified a net calcification process creating an alkalinity sink across PMNM waters, highlighting the complex interplay between biological and physical drivers in this remote yet ecologically critical region.
Kealoha, A. K., Kahng, S. E., Mackenzie, F. T., Alin, S. R., Kosaki, R. K., Brainard, R. E., & Winn, C. D. (2015). Latitudinal Trends and Drivers in the CO2–Carbonic Acid System of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Aquatic Geochemistry, 21(6), 535–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10498-015-9273-z
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Bibliographic Catalogue of the Marine Benthic Algae in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)
A comprehensive catalogue of marine benthic algae in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) reveals 335 species across ten Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, atolls, and shoals. The study organizes these species into four phyla—Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Ochrophyta, and Chlorophyta—and provides detailed taxonomic listings with reference citations for each location. Notably, French Frigate Shoals hosts the highest diversity (173 species), while Nihoa Island has the lowest (33). The catalogue includes a chronological island-reference index and brief notes on select species, offering a foundational resource for algal research in this UNESCO-listed marine region.
TSUDA, R. T. (2014). Bibliographic Catalogue of the Marine Benthic Algae in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands). Phytotaxa, 167(1). https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.167.1.2
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Chapter 19. Protecting and Perpetuating Papahānaumokuākea: Involvement of Native Hawaiians in Governance of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
A symbiotic relationship between Native Hawaiians and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) is central to the preservation of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, one of the last nearly pristine marine ecosystems in the Hawaiian Archipelago. This study highlights how integrating Native Hawaiian traditions, values, and resource management practices into monument governance not only protects the ecosystem but also perpetuates living Hawaiian culture. By involving Native Hawaiians in stewardship, the research demonstrates a pathway to maintain ancestral connections and sustain traditional skills that thrived before Western contact.
Guth, H. K. (2013). Chapter 19. Protecting and Perpetuating Papahānaumokuākea: Involvement of Native Hawaiians in Governance of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Governing Ocean Resources, 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004252486_021
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Forecasting the impact of storm waves and sea-level rise on Midway Atoll and Laysan Island within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument—a comparison of passive versus dynamic inundation models
Classic atolls with islands on shallow rims are more vulnerable to the combined effects of sea-level rise and storm waves, leading to earlier and more severe inundation than predicted by passive models. This study compared dynamic inundation models—accounting for wave-induced set-up and run-up—to passive 'bathtub' models using Midway Atoll (shallow rim) and Laysan Island (deep rim). Findings revealed that sea-level rise increases wave heights and wavelengths, amplifying run-up despite reduced set-up. Dynamic modeling showed substantial inundation at lower sea-level rise thresholds than passive models, suggesting infrastructure and ecosystems on shallow-rim atolls face heightened risks sooner in the 21st century.
Storlazzi, C. D., Berkowitz, P., Reynolds, M. H., & Logan, J. B. (2013). Forecasting the impact of storm waves and sea-level rise on Midway Atoll and Laysan Island within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument—a comparison of passive versus dynamic inundation models. Open-File Report. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20131069
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Sailing through Time: A Historical Examination of the Explorations and Expeditions of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
Decades of exploration and documentation reveal the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) as dynamic, pristine ecosystems with significant cultural, economic, and scientific value. This study highlights how past expeditions—spanning voyaging, monitoring, and protection efforts—have laid the foundation for modern ecosystem-based management, exemplified by the successful implementation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM). By integrating local knowledge with scientific research, the NWHI serves as a model for large-scale, archipelagic-wide conservation strategies. The findings underscore the importance of historical exploration in shaping current research priorities and future management directions, offering insights that support global ocean systems understanding and environmental stewardship.
Wiener, C. S., & Wagner, D. (2013). Sailing through Time: A Historical Examination of the Explorations and Expeditions of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Atoll Research Bulletin, 594, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00775630.594
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The Ecology of Coral Reef Top Predators in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
Coral reef ecosystems within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) are uniquely dominated by top-level predators, notably giant trevally and Galapagos sharks, which significantly influence shallow-water reef fish assemblages. Unlike other remote Pacific atolls, PMNM exhibits lower diversity among predatory teleosts such as groupers and snappers. Predators in this region demonstrate strong site attachment to specific atolls while exhibiting extensive movement within those atolls, with highest abundances observed in fore-reef habitats. The study highlights the diverse foraging behavior of these top predators and their potential for exerting indirect ecological impacts on reef ecosystems. Identified knowledge gaps suggest directions for future research to better understand predator dynamics in this protected marine environment.
Dale, J. J., Meyer, C. G., & Clark, C. E. (2011). The Ecology of Coral Reef Top Predators in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Journal of Marine Biology, 2011, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/725602
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