Publications
Damage Assessment and Guidelines for Restoration Methods of Ancient Brick Structures at Sambor Prei Kuk, Cambodia
A comprehensive damage assessment of the 286 ancient brick structures at Sambor Prei Kuk, Cambodia, identified critical threats to their stability: outward deformation of foundations, structural stress from corbel arches, weakness around door openings, vegetation-induced fragmentation, and impacts from fallen trees. These findings, derived from a detailed risk mapping and diagnostic survey by the Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation Project, highlight the urgent need for targeted restoration methods that balance stabilization with preservation of authenticity. The study provides actionable guidelines to mitigate deterioration while safeguarding the integrity of this UNESCO World Heritage Site, which was inscribed in 2017.
Prasat Sambor as a Prototype of the Pyramidal State-Temple in Khmer Temple Construction
Recent comprehensive field research at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sambor Prei Kuk has uncovered three distinct temple complexes—Prasat Sambor, Prasat Yeai Poeun, and Prasat Tao—that represent a pivotal prototype in Khmer temple architecture. These square enclosures with central shrines and adjacent precincts laid the foundation for the complex temple designs that later flourished during the Angkorian period, culminating in iconic structures like Angkor Wat. Analysis of Prasat Sambor's dimensional layout revealed its role as an early pyramidal state-temple, serving as a central religious facility while also elucidating the planning techniques and construction units used in its design. This study sheds light on the architectural evolution from pre-Angkorian single-brick shrines to the sophisticated temple complexes that defined Khmer civilization.
Estimated Construction Order of the Major Shrines of Sambor Prei Kuk Based on an Analysis of Bricks
Analysis of brick composition and size at the Temple Zone of Sambor Prei Kuk reveals a more complex construction timeline for its major shrines than previously assumed. The study, which examined 59 well-preserved brick structures in the archaeological site of ancient Ishanapura (capital of the Chenla Dynasty), identified distinct groups corresponding to different construction stages. This challenges earlier dating based on epigraphy and decorative styles, suggesting that individual shrines within temple complexes were built through a nuanced, multi-phase process rather than as simple, sequential additions.
On the Dimensional Plan in Prasat Sambor Monuments in Sambor Prei Kuk Monuments
A novel method for planning brick structures in the Sambor Prei Kuk Monuments, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, has been revealed. This study builds on recent advancements in understanding the dimensional planning of Khmer temple complexes, particularly focusing on the Prasat Sambor monuments from the Pre-Angkor and Angkor periods. The research sheds light on the architectural techniques used in these significant historical sites, which were previously understudied despite their registration as a World Heritage Site in 2015 for their historical importance. By analyzing the planning methods of brick structures, this study contributes to the ongoing restoration efforts and deepens our understanding of ancient Khmer urban planning.
Sambor Prei Kuk
Sambor Prei Kuk, a potential UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia, faces risks of marginalizing local farming communities and religious practices, mirroring issues seen at Angkor Wat. The study proposes an equitable rights-based framework to protect religious heritage, contrasting it with hierarchical approaches. It highlights the need for balanced policies that integrate human rights with cultural preservation, ensuring sustainable protection for both communities and traditions.
Diversity of the Primitive Khmer Architecture in Sambor Prei Kuk
The architectural diversity of brick shrines at the Temple Zone of Sambor Prei Kuk, Cambodia—a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest Pre-Angkor complex—was found to be irregularly mixed, with variations in plan form, interior layout, pedestal structure, antechamber design, elevation, and corbel arch roofing. This diversity peaked during the Pre-Angkor period (prior to the 9th century) before standardizing under Angkorian influence, marking a shift from brick to sandstone as the primary construction material by the 11th century. The study analyzed 28 well-preserved shrines, revealing that Sambor Prei Kuk represents the most sophisticated expression of Pre-Angkor architecture in design, structure, and technique.
Spatial and Chronological Sketch of the Ancient City of Sambor Prei Kuk
Recent archaeological investigations at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sambor Prei Kuk, identified as the ancient capital of the Chenla kingdom (Īśānapura), reveal previously unknown urban features that challenge and expand our understanding of its chronological occupation. While the 'Temple Zone' has been extensively studied since the early 20th century, new discoveries in the 'City Zone'—including brick sanctuaries, moats, ramparts, roads, basins, and dams—suggest that this area was not only occupied as early as the 7th century but also remained a significant regional center throughout the Angkorian period (until at least the 10th century). These findings, supported by epigraphic analysis of inscriptions, statues, lintels, and spatial distributions, indicate that Sambor Prei Kuk functioned as a dual-purpose site: a religious complex and an urban hub, bridging the gap between its early capital phase and its later role within the Angkorian empire. This recontextualizes the site's significance in Southeast Asian political and cultural history.
Location of a pre-Angkor capital city in relation to geomorphological features of lower reach of the Stung Sen River, central Cambodia
Research reveals that the pre-Angkor capital city of Chenla, located at the Sambor Prei Kuk archaeological site in central Cambodia, was strategically positioned on upland II adjacent to a port town near the Stung Sen River. This location minimized monsoonal flood risk while maximizing accessibility and water transport feasibility, demonstrating an adaptation to the region's highly variable dry and wet seasons. The study analyzed geomorphological features of the lower reach of the river, including meander scroll zones, sediment accumulation rates (0.6 mm/year over 4600 years), and floodplain/lake plain divisions to assess flood risk and upland accessibility. These findings highlight the sophisticated understanding of environmental dynamics by ancient inhabitants.
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