Publications
Approaches to Organizing Recreational Spaces in Forefields of Historic Fortification
Landscaping historic castle forefields to create recreational spaces can exacerbate soil subsidence and foundation damage, particularly when castles are located near water bodies. A study analyzing the landscape design techniques of Oświęcim Castle, Malbork Castle (including its Lower Castle), and Wawel Castle in Kraków found that while such transformations offer functional benefits, they also pose risks to the structural integrity of these historic fortifications. The research identified common and distinctive features among recreational techniques applied to castle territories and proposed potential modifications to mitigate negative impacts. The findings highlight the need for careful planning to balance functionality with preservation, especially in areas prone to moisture-related instability.
Music, Morality, and Mayhem: Anton Möller the Elder’s Drawings from Marienburg (1587)
Anton Möller the Elder’s drawings from Marienburg (1587) reveal a nuanced exploration of music's dual role in shaping moral character during the Northern Renaissance. Through detailed analysis, the study uncovers how Möller employs symbolism to contrast the destructive influence of music and revelry—depicted in 'Folk Fair before Marienburg'—with its redemptive potential in 'An Elegant Reception with Christburg Castle.' The research identifies Möller’s reliance on Northern Renaissance artistic conventions, particularly in depicting musicians as catalysts for vice or virtue. This work bridges a gap in English-language scholarship by delving into the moral and ideological underpinnings of Möller’s art, offering new insights into Lutheran values and their visual representation.
Czy w badaniach nad historią średniowiecznego budownictwa zamkowego w państwie krzyżackim w Prusach niczym nieskrępowaną wyobraźnią można zastępować niedostatki źródłowe?
A critical reassessment of Christofer Herrmann’s 2023 thesis on the medieval castle builder 'Master Jan' challenges its validity, arguing that his claims about Master Jan’s work at Malbork Castle (1395–1398) are unsupported by scholarly rigor. The study asserts that while Master Jan likely contributed to the construction of the grand masters’ palace in the western wing of Malbork’s inner bailey, any further attribution is speculative and lacks credible source evidence. The authors emphasize the need for historical research to adhere to rigorous methodological standards, rejecting Herrmann’s conclusions as unfounded. This work underscores the importance of cautious interpretation when primary sources are scarce, setting a precedent for future studies on medieval castle architecture in the Teutonic Knights’ State.
Alltag und Lebensverhältnisse des Hochmeisters in der Marienburg in der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts
A detailed reconstruction of the Grand Master's daily life and living conditions at Marienburg Castle (Malbork) during the first half of the 15th century reveals a structured routine dominated by religious obligations, political administration, and courtly meals. Analysis of diverse sources—including letters from the Grand Master’s physician, order rules, accounts, chronicles, and diplomatic records—highlights three core components: frequent religious observances (such as night prayers), structured dining (midday and evening feasts, morning soups), and extensive administrative duties (consultations, negotiations, and meetings). While leisure activities were limited, glimpses into his private life—pets, music, studies—emerge sporadically. This study provides the first comprehensive portrait of a Teutonic Order leader's dual existence: one of public duty and another, more intimate sphere rarely documented in historical records.
Diabelskie koło historii. Poetyki miejskie w powieści Aleksieja Iwanowa Cienie Teutonów
Aleksei Ivanov's novel Shadows of the Teutons (2021) offers a unique lens to examine urban poetics and historical memory through the transformation of Baltic cities, notably Marienburg (Malbork) and Baltiysk (Pillau), across two pivotal periods: the 1457 Polish-Teutonic conflict and the 1945 battles in East Prussia. The study reveals how these landscapes, marked by somatopoetics and thanatopoetics, encapsulate sensory dimensions—auditory and olfactory—of wartime experiences, memoryscapes, and subterranean settings like bunkers and catacombs. By analyzing narrative structures and interconnections, the research uncovers the complex identity of these sites, bridging historical conflicts and their enduring cultural imprints.
Preliminary assessment of structural masonry damage in Malbork Castle
Uneven subsoil settlement is identified as the primary cause of structural masonry damage in Malbork Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its medieval architecture. The study revealed previously undiscovered brick vaults beneath the basement floor during destructive testing, which included geodetic measurements, ultrasonic tomography, and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) analysis. These findings highlight the need for systematic monitoring of displacements and comprehensive structural diagnostics in this historic monument, despite assumptions about its stable foundation.
Prussian Protective Equipment
Archaeological and visual evidence reveals that the Prussians, initially lacking defensive equipment beyond shields, developed a rudimentary protective complex only during the height of crusading conflicts with Polish principalities. This complex, comprising shields, helmets, and armor, was inadequately mastered by the Prussians, as evidenced by scarce archaeological finds—with a single exception: the capital from the Marienburg/Malbork castle, which uniquely preserves the full range of this equipment. The study suggests that Prussian warriors primarily relied on dismounted combat with throwing darts, a tactic ill-suited for prolonged foot engagements against heavily armed adversaries like the Teutonic Order. This finding underscores the Prussians' eventual vulnerability to crusader aggression, marking their historical decline.
Timber-framed structures and building elements at Malbork Castle in the Middle Ages and modern times
Archaeological and historical research at Malbork Castle reveals that despite its uniform brick architecture today, the site once featured numerous timber-framed (fachwerk) structures during the Middle Ages. These included residential and economic buildings, as well as defensive elements like towers and bastions with wooden upper levels—such as Gdanisko, Baszta Maślankowa, Kurza Noga, and Baba—some of which also had wooden roof lucarnes. Most timber-framed buildings were located in the castle's outer precinct (przedzamcze), housing soldiers, servants, and tenants. The study, based on historical descriptions and iconography from the 16th to 20th centuries, challenges the perception that Malbork Castle was entirely brick-built, highlighting the significance of timber construction in medieval fortifications.
User experience analysis in virtual museums
Virtual museum user experience analysis reveals that the Museum of Auschwitz-Birkenau outperforms Malbork Castle Museum in usability metrics, despite similar eye-tracking engagement. The study employed a multi-method approach—Nielsen heuristics for expert interface evaluation, Gazepoint GP3 HD eye tracking to measure visual attention, and System Usability Scale surveys combined with self-reported feedback from 16 participants. While both museums demonstrated comparable user focus during tasks, the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum achieved higher usability scores, suggesting design elements that enhance navigation and interaction. This research underscores the importance of intuitive interfaces in virtual heritage experiences, offering insights for improving digital preservation platforms like Malbork Castle's.
Zespół bram między przedzamczem a Nogatem w Malborku z XIV wieku. Przyczynek do badań słabo poznanych elementów założenia zamkowego
Archaeological research at the Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork has uncovered a previously unidentified gate complex dating back to the 14th century, located between the outer bailey and the Nogat River. This discovery sheds light on a poorly documented element of the castle's layout, which was not fully recognized or properly identified by previous studies. The study utilized early modern inventory descriptions, maps, and panoramas to reconstruct the gate complex, revealing key features such as the first gate near St Lawrence Church, two additional gates (Grain or Granary Gates), a transverse moat with a drawbridge, and a small walled courtyard. While the complex was destroyed during the Swedish Deluge, this analysis provides a partial reconstruction, though further investigation is needed to fully understand its dimensions, layout, and construction techniques.
Endeavours of the Malbork Castle Museumwith Respect to Malbork Castle’s War Losses
The Malbork Castle Museum's participation in the Investigating Polish War Losses Programme, codenamed '#ProjektStraty', has significantly advanced the documentation and accessibility of war losses and dispersed collections related to the Castle of the Teutonic Order. By systematically identifying, studying, and providing diverse forms of access to sources, the museum has made substantial progress in provenance research. This initiative, supported by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage since 2018, highlights the importance of collaborative efforts in preserving historical artifacts and understanding their trajectories during periods of conflict.
From the History of the Formation of the European Doctrine of Protection and Restoration of Monuments at the End of the 18th — 19th Century (for Example, Marienburg Castle)
A new study reveals the pivotal role of Karl Friedrich Schinkel's 1815 memorandum, 'Preservation of all monuments and antiquities of our country,' in shaping European monument protection policies. It demonstrates how this document laid the foundation for modern Polish heritage conservation practices and influenced German architectural preservation during the transition from Enlightenment to Romanticism. The research also attributes previously unknown authorship to Friedrich Gilly's 1794 drawings of Marienburg Castle, which were exhibited at the Berlin Academy of Arts in 1795—a key moment that re-evaluated medieval culture. Through an analysis of Marienburg Castle's restoration history, the study traces evolving 19th-century restoration methods and highlights the contributions of prominent cultural figures and architects to this process.
Malbork Castle, the Knights of the Teutonic Order and the "German East" in the 19th and 20th Centuries
Malbork Castle, a symbol of the Teutonic Order's medieval power, became central to German historical narratives in the 19th and 20th centuries. Research reveals that interpretations of the 'German East'—a contested concept referring to territories historically associated with German settlement or influence—varied significantly depending on political contexts. The study demonstrates how Malbork Castle, rediscovered around 1800, was strategically used in nationalistic discourses, reflecting shifting boundaries and ideologies. By analyzing historical policies and cultural representations, the research highlights the fluidity of geographical and identity constructs in German history.
Mistrz Jan – architekt Pałacu Wielkich Mistrzów na zamku malborskim. "Oeuvre" i oryginalny styl wybitnego mistrza budowlanego działającego między 1375 a 1406 r.
Master John, architect of the Grand Master's Palace at Malbork Castle (1375–1406), emerges as a pioneering figure in Central European 'Reduction Gothic' architecture. His innovative and unconventional designs, evident in structures like the Grand Master's Palace and Malbork town hall, set him apart from contemporaries such as Peter Parler or Ulrich von Ensingen. Historical sources and stylistic comparisons suggest he trained in Bohemia before working on a Livonian residence (Arensburg), likely commissioned by Bishop Henry. After the bishop's murder in 1380—linked to the Teutonic Order—Master John moved to Malbork, where he designed the palace under Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode and later worked on the castle in Bytów. His creative independence and ability to transcend traditions highlight his significance in medieval European architecture.
About the orgin and possible affiliation of the vice-commander of the Malbork Castle Claus von Winterthur (1388-1402)
Claus von Winterthur, vice-commander of the Teutonic Order's Castle in Malbork (1388–1402), likely hailed from Strasbourg rather than his ancestral home of Niederwinterthur. This conclusion stems from an analysis of surnames and historical records, suggesting that Claus, a member of the urban ministerialis family, sought opportunity abroad due to social pressures in Winterthur. His prolonged tenure as vice-commander—unprecedented among predecessors—may have been facilitated by loyalty to his kin, Konrad and Rudolf von Kyburg, and collaboration with fellow brethren from Alsace-Burgundy. The study reconstructs Claus's origins and affiliations using genealogical and historical evidence, offering new insights into the social dynamics of the Teutonic Order during a pivotal period of its expansion.
Castles in the Teutonic Order State in Prussia as Medium of Ideology and Manifestation of Power
The Teutonic Order's castles in Prussia served as powerful symbols of centralized authority and ideological propaganda, reflecting their role as defenders of Christianity. Research reveals that the Order adapted the castell type fortress, a structure traditionally associated with strong state power, to reinforce their hierarchical governance and divine legitimacy. Towers, another key architectural element, symbolized feudal dominance, while the grand master's palace in Malbork drew from the tradition of donjons, representing sovereign rule. Additionally, the castle in Sztum exemplified court culture and prestige, serving as a leisure retreat for the overlord. The study analyzes these structures' geometric precision, repetitiveness, and symbolic significance to demonstrate their function as tools of power manifestation and ideological expression.
Introduction. The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade
The Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork stands as the largest brick-built fortified structure globally, spanning 20 hectares. Restored to its 14th-century grandeur after WWII destruction, it is one of 218 such structures erected between the mid-13th and early 15th centuries across modern North Poland, Kaliningrad Oblast, and southwestern Lithuania—regions historically known as Prussia. This study highlights Malbork's significance in medieval European history, particularly its role during the Prussian Crusade, a period marked by the Christianization of pagan Baltic tribes. The research approach combines historical archaeology with architectural analysis to reconstruct the castle's past and its broader cultural context.
Badania strat wojennych w zakresie zbiorów artystycznych na przykładzie zamku w Malborku
Ongoing research at the Malbork Castle Museum has uncovered significant wartime losses to art collections, with findings indicating substantial dispersal and looting of heritage assets during World War II. The study, part of a larger project funded by Poland's Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, focuses on archival analysis to trace the fate of lost items and assess the extent of damage. By consolidating and inspecting historical records, researchers aim to reconstruct the scope of losses and identify looted artworks, offering critical insights into the preservation challenges faced by UNESCO World Heritage Sites during conflict.
Stan i potrzeby badań nad uzbrojeniem późnośredniowiecznym z obszaru dzisiejszej Polski. Perspektywa nowego millenium
Research on late medieval arms and armour from present-day Poland has seen significant advancements, particularly in the last two decades. Key milestones include synthetic studies like 'Armaments in Late Medieval Poland (1450–1500)' and works by Lech Marek, Jan Szymczak, and Piotr Strzyż, which have expanded knowledge on cold steel arms, firearms, and weapon symbolism. The study highlights the importance of interdisciplinary approaches, including archaeometry, metallography, iconography, and experimental reconstructions, which have deepened understanding of weapon technology and usage. Despite progress, gaps remain in regional studies, particularly for Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Masovia, and transitional armaments of the 13th century. The research also underscores the role of museum collections, underwater archaeology, and battlefield archaeology in enriching knowledge. However, challenges persist due to scattered research institutions and limited educational opportunities for successors.
„Król się ślini na myśl o Gdańsku…” – cztery odsłony walki o symbole między miastem a władzą zwierzchnią z zamkiem krzyżackim w tle
Archaeological and historical analysis reveals that the Teutonic Order's castle in Gdańsk, constructed around 1340, was not only a strategic fortress but also a central symbol in the city's centuries-long struggle for autonomy against external rulers. The study identifies four key episodes of symbolic conflict: post-Battle of Grunwald (1410) political murders, a 1453 dispute over church tower construction, the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) demolition of the castle to prevent Polish sovereignty, and its indirect iconographic representation in later art. The research combines written records with archaeological evidence, including sandstone relics from the castle found in St. Mary's Church and the Artus Manor, to reconstruct the castle's lost silhouette and its political significance. A 2020 discovery in St. Mary's Church further supports the theory that architectural elements were repurposed symbolically after the castle's demolition.
Lokalizacja infirmerii w topografii krzyżackich zamków komturskich w Prusach w późnym średniowieczu
Research on the Teutonic Order's castles in late medieval Prussia reveals that infirmaries were predominantly located within the bailey, serving both religious brothers and secular servants. While earlier studies relied solely on architectural data, this study analyzed written sources from the 14th to 15th centuries, demonstrating that nearly all infirmaries adhered to this pattern, with sparse exceptions like Malbork and Königsberg castles. The findings challenge previous assumptions by providing a more comprehensive spatial understanding of healthcare facilities within these strongholds.
Niezrealizowane projekty odbudowy kościoła w Oruni autorstwa gdańskiego architekta miejskiego Carla Samuela Helda
A previously overlooked collection of eight reconstruction designs for the Evangelical church in Orunia, created by Gdańsk architect Carl Samuel Held between 1816 and 1819, reveals a unique departure from his usual classicist style. The designs, preserved in Gdańsk's State Archive, include two revolutionary classicist variants and six neo-Gothic ones—an exception in Held’s oeuvre and the first known attempt to design a sacral building. However, their formal clumsiness and financial impracticality led to rejection. Instead, a project by August von Gersdorff, influenced by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, was implemented, featuring forms inspired by the Teutonic Castle in Malbork—a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This church stands as the first neo-Gothic structure in Gdańsk and its region, marking a significant architectural reference to Malbork’s symbolic German identity.
Złotnicy w Chojnicach w XVIII wieku
Research on goldsmithery in Chojnice during the 18th century reveals that the town, though overshadowed by nearby Gdańsk, had a small but significant craft tradition. The study identified five goldsmiths and one apprentice, nearly all connected by family ties, who operated a single workshop for most of the century. Notable works include items crafted by Johann Friedrich Felsch I, such as an incense boat in Chojnice and a set of spoons now housed in the Malbork Castle Museum, which bear both his master's mark and evidence of guild membership in Malbork. The findings also highlight the influence of Gdańsk's style on local craftsmanship, with works showing average artistry but clear dependence on regional trends.
How Violence Shapes Religion: Belief and Conflict in the Middle East and Africa
Violence profoundly shapes religious beliefs and conflicts, as evidenced by the 13th-century Marienburg Castle of the Teutonic Order near Malbork, Poland. This fortress, through its architecture and artifacts, reflects the interplay between Christian faith and violent encounters that defined its era. The study examines how such structures perpetuate myths of identity and belief, contributing to broader patterns of conflict in regions like the Middle East and Africa. By analyzing historical and material evidence, the research highlights the enduring impact of violence on religious narratives and societal dynamics.
Not only the Golden Gate? A newly discovered fragment from the decoration of the castle chapel portal in Althaus (Starogród) as a contribution to the identification of ceramic sculpture in the Teutonic Order's State in Prussia
A newly discovered ceramic fragment from the decoration of the castle chapel portal in Althaus (Starogród), unearthed during archaeological excavations in Kulmerland, challenges previous assumptions about the role and significance of ceramic architectural sculpture in the Teutonic Order's State in Prussia. This small but significant finding suggests that such sculptures were more widespread than previously believed, not just as symbols of rank and power, but also as integral elements reflecting the 'genius loci'—the defining spirit or character—of the architecture from the first phase of construction campaigns by the Teutonic Order. The discovery, part of the project Castra Terrae Culmensis (2017), provides new insights into the types, manufacturing techniques, and layers of meaning associated with figural decorations in castles such as Marienburg (Malbork), Elbing (Elbląg), Thorn (Toruń), and Graudenz (Grudziądz). This fragment, dating to around 1300, offers a rare opportunity to revise our understanding of ceramic sculpture in this historical context.
Restoration of the monumental sculpture of Madonna in the Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork (Marienburg)
The monumental Madonna sculpture, once the largest medieval artwork in Europe and a defining symbol of Malbork Castle, was nearly entirely destroyed during World War II. Restoration efforts have since focused on reconstructing the 8-meter-tall mosaic-covered figure, known as the Malbork Colossus, from its surviving fragments and thousands of tesserae. While the castle underwent post-war reconstruction, the Madonna's restoration remained delayed, highlighting the challenges of preserving such iconic historical artifacts. This study underscores the significance of the sculpture not only as a work of art but also as a cultural symbol representing the Teutonic Order's legacy in Prussia.
Kazimierz Pospieszny, Domus Malbork. Zamek krzyżacki w typie regularnym [Domus Malbork. Castle of the Teutonic Order of a regular type] (Monografie Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu), Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika ...
The Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork stands as a rare example of medieval architecture characterized by its regular, symmetrical design. This monograph, authored by Kazimierz Pospieszny and published in 2014, delves into the architectural evolution and urban planning of this monumental complex, which served as the administrative center of the Teutonic Knights' state. Through meticulous analysis of historical documents, archaeological data, and comparative study with other medieval castles, the work reconstructs the castle's development from its foundation in 1274 to its later transformations. It highlights the innovative integration of military fortification with residential and administrative functions, setting a precedent for regular-type castles in Europe. The study is enriched by extensive visual documentation, including 283 black-and-white figures and 30 colored illustrations, providing a comprehensive insight into this architectural marvel's design and historical significance.
Die Marienburg: Vom Machtzentrum des Deutschen Ordens zum mitteleuropäischen Erinnerungsort, ed. Bernd Ulrich Hucker, Eugen Kotteand Christine Vogel
The Castle of Marienburg (Malbork) undergoes a complex transformation from a medieval power center to a contested symbol of European history. Originally the seat of the Teutonic Order and later a royal residence in Poland, its narrative shifts dramatically under Prussian rule, Nazi propaganda, and post-war conflicts. The castle's 50–60% destruction during World War II and subsequent restoration efforts highlight its layered significance as both a monument of German history and a site of collective memory. This study traces these transitions, revealing how the castle's physical and symbolic reconstruction reflects broader European historical narratives.
Honey in the Economy of the Malbork (Marienburg) Commandry (Komturei)
Honey played a significant role in the economy of the Malbork (Marienburg) Commandry, serving as a key ingredient for mead production and a sweetener for local wine. The Teutonic Order, which controlled the region, held exclusive rights to beekeeping, highlighting its economic importance during medieval times. This study sheds light on the historical significance of honey in Prussia, drawing from reliable but scarce sources. By analyzing the Commandry's records and practices, researchers reconstructed the role of honey in the local economy, emphasizing its multifunctional use beyond mere sustenance.
The position of the ‘master mason’ (‘magister lapidum’, ‘magister laterum’, ‘steinmeister’, ‘czygelmeyster’, ‘muwermeister’) in the Teutonic Order’s state in Prussia in the 14th and in the first half of the 15th centuries
Research reveals that the position of 'master mason' within the Teutonic Order's state in Prussia, spanning the 14th and early 15th centuries, played a pivotal role in coordinating brick castle construction. This role, held by knights for specified periods, involved overseeing labor, materials procurement, and work execution, thereby enabling the precise dating of several castles. Notably, the high castle in Ragnit was completed before 1406, while Marienburg (Malbork) underwent development in two phases during the 1340s and 1370s. Additional findings include the construction timeline for castles in Gdańsk, Schlochau, Tuchel, Lauenburg, Barten, Labiau, Neidenburg, and Memel, corroborating historical claims about their erection periods.
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