Publications
Bioconsolidation of calcarenite for cultural heritage conservation: Effects of application methods on mechanical and petrophysical properties
Bioconsolidation using carbonatogenic bacteria significantly enhances the mechanical and petrophysical properties of calcarenite, a highly porous rock, offering a promising eco-friendly conservation technique for weathered stone materials. The study, conducted under laboratory conditions, examined the efficacy of different bioconsolidation application methods—spray and immersion—on Macco calcarenite from the Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia. Results showed that while spray treatment led to higher mass gain, immersion provided greater mechanical reinforcement, including increased uniaxial unconfined compressive strength and seismic wave velocity. These findings support bioconsolidation as an effective non-invasive intervention for the restoration of ancient Etruscan hypogeal tombs, addressing conservators' needs while advancing sustainable conservation practices.
Egyptian blue in Etruscan funerary wall paintings: A multi-analytical study from the Monterozzi necropolis (Tarquinia)
A groundbreaking multi-analytical study of the Monterozzi Necropolis in Tarquinia, Italyreveals the extensive use of Egyptian blue in Etruscan funerary wall paintings from the 7th to 3rd century BCE. The research, part of the ARANTH campaign, identified this pigment not only as a primary color but also in combination with others across green, red, blue, and whitish areas. A novel application of micro-fluorescence in near-infrared imaging enabled rapid localization of luminescent grains, later confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, providing unprecedented insights into the spatial distribution of Egyptian blue within pictorial layers. Additionally, azurite was identified for the first time in Etruscan mural painting, offering new evidence on pigment use and painting technology. The study integrated advanced techniques such as VIS–NIR hyperspectral analysis, X-ray fluorescence, and FT-IR spectroscopy to map and analyze five painted tombs, contributing significantly to our understanding of Etruscan funerary art.
Sustainable Management of UNESCO Landscapes to Foster Natural and Cultural Capital
A study of the Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia reveals significant landscape changes from 1954 to 2023, with a 23% alteration in land cover. While the site's recognition as a UNESCO area has mitigated some fragmentation, concerns persist, particularly in its buffer zone, which includes the ancient Etruscan city and lacks adequate protection. The research identifies critical management strategies, such as expanding the core area to include the ancient city, restoring naturalistic connections like the ancient path, and reforesting sensitive archaeological areas to combat landscape fragmentation. These actions aim to foster both natural and cultural capital, ensuring sustainable conservation for future generations.
An archaeological landscape amid nature, culture, and atmosphere: preliminary considerations for the Co.R.A.Ve. Research and Conservation Project
The Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia, particularly the Banditaccia necropolis, represent a unique archaeological landscape where native vegetation and funerary structures coexist symbiotically. This study introduces preliminary considerations for the Co.R.A.Ve. Research and Conservation Project, which aims to develop conservation methodologies that preserve this delicate balance without compromising the site's historical and emotional value. By employing theories from Carlson and Assunto, the research frames the necropolis as a 'historic landscape,' emphasizing the interplay between nature, culture, and human perception. The project addresses challenges posed by traditional restoration practices, advocating for interventions that maintain the integrity of both vegetation and ruins while enhancing their long-term protection.
Innovative, Multidisciplinary Approach for Restoring Paintings in Hypogeal Environment: Etruscan Tomba Degli Scudi (4th Century Bc) in Tarquinia
A groundbreaking discovery in the restoration of Etruscan mural paintings at the 4th-century BC Tomba degli Scudi, a UNESCO-listed hypogeum in Tarquinia, Italy, reveals that Etruscan artists used modular templates—termed patroni and antibola—to depict human figures, challenging long-held assumptions about the origin of this technique by predating its known use in medieval art by nearly a millennium. This finding refines our understanding of technological transitions from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The study employed an innovative, multidisciplinary approach combining conservation, archaeology, and microbiology, including ultraviolet fluorescence with 3D techniques and rigorous pre-, during-, and post-restoration microbial analyses. Notably, moonmilk—a microbial-derived calcite—was identified as a preservative agent in the paintings, while challenges in post-restoration disinfestation highlighted the need for targeted conservation strategies. The research was conducted collaboratively by restorers, archaeologists, and scientists, funded by the Italian Environment Fund and archaeological authorities.
Long-term monitoring of the hypogeal Etruscan Tomba degli Scudi, Tarquinia, Italy. Early detection of black spots, investigation of fungal community, and evaluation of their biodeterioration potential
A multi-analytical investigation of the Tomba degli Scudi in Tarquinia, Italy, identified common subterranean fungal strains—such as Gliomastix murorum and Pseudogymnoascus pannorum—as responsible for expanding black spots on its ancient Etruscan mural paintings. These fungi, found globally in similar environments like Lascaux Cave, pose a biodeterioration risk to the site's priceless artistic heritage. Long-term monitoring since 2016 enabled early detection and assessment of their harmful potential, demonstrating the efficacy of preventive conservation strategies for fragile hypogeal sites.
The Etruscans – a Society of Masters and Servants? A Modern Topos and its Origins
A pervasive modern narrative portraying Etruscan society as rigidly divided between masters and servants is challenged by new research, which traces the origins of this 'two-class topos' from 19th-century scholarship to contemporary interpretations. While ancient literary sources and theories about Etruscan immigration have long fueled this perspective, a critical reassessment reveals its limitations. The study instead advocates for deeper engagement with Etruscan source material, exemplified by an analysis of the late Etruscan necropolis at Fondo Scataglini in Tarquinia, to better understand societal hierarchies without relying on problematic ancient accounts.
Approaches to the Etruscan Landscape: the Development of the Tuscania Survey
A systematic field survey of the Etruscan landscape around Tuscania reveals that understanding rural settlement patterns is crucial to unraveling the development of Etruscan urbanism, city-state territories, and socioeconomic systems. The study highlights the importance of field surveys in studying ancient Mediterranean landscapes but notes ongoing debates about optimal sampling and recording methods. Challenges include logistical constraints, such as the difficulty in obtaining permits for moving archaeological material within Italy, which complicates comprehensive analysis.
Biogenic calcium carbonate as evidence for life
A groundbreaking discovery reveals that moonmilk, a calcium carbonate deposit found in the Iron Age Etruscan necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia, is of unequivocal biogenic origin. This makes it the only known carbonate speleothem on Earth with confirmed microbial involvement, serving as a robust biosignature of life. The study, conducted by Ronca et al., demonstrates that moonmilk precipitation is driven by endolytic bacterial communities within calcarenite and hybrid sandstone rocks, not just on their surfaces. This finding challenges traditional understanding of speleothem formation and underscores the significant role microbes play in rock evolution. The research employed a combination of microbial community analysis and geochemical investigations to elucidate this process.
Ground remote sensing surveys to investigate mounds tombs from Etruscan period. The case of Monte Abatone necropolis (Cerveteri, Italy)
Ground remote sensing surveys at the Etruscan necropolis of Monte Abatone, Cerveteri, Italy, have successfully identified a network of circular and rectangular features corresponding to buried tomb structures. Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) with multiple antenna frequencies (400 MHz, 300/800 MHz, and a multichannel stepped frequency system), researchers mapped approximately twelve hectares of unexplored necropolis between 2018 and 2021. The processed GPR data revealed distinct reflections linked to chamber or pit tombs, providing new insights into the spatial organization of this ancient Etruscan site.
Plant Diversity in Archaeological Sites and Its Bioindication Values for Nature Conservation: Assessments in the UNESCO Site Etruscan Necropolis of Tarquinia (Italy)
Archaeological sites, including the UNESCO-listed Etruscan Necropolis of Tarquinia, often serve as refuges for plant biodiversity while posing risks to monument conservation. A study reveals that the necropolis harbors significant naturalistic value, with a high richness of species and diverse plant communities thriving on tumuli, trampled areas, and less disturbed zones. These communities include synanthropic and natural Mediterranean grasslands, reflecting both current and historical land use practices. Notably, the site's species diversity surpasses that of other well-known archaeological sites in Rome, underscoring its ecological importance. The research suggests that plant diversity should be integrated into management plans for such sites to preserve their natural values alongside their cultural significance.
The Analysis of 222Rn and 220Rn Natural Radioactivity for Local Hazard Estimation: The Case Study of Cerveteri (Central Italy)
A study of the Etruscan Necropolis of Cerveteri in Central Italy revealed localized moderate radon (222Rn) anomalies (>16,000 Bq/m³) in soils near a funerary site, linked to volcanic tuff outcrops. Indoor radon measurements showed medium-low levels (<200 Bq/m³), except for some dwellings exceeding the EU-recommended threshold (>300 Bq/m³). The research also explored thoron (220Rn) activity in soil gas, providing new insights into radon sources affecting homes despite its shorter half-life. This work highlights the need for awareness and remediation in areas with natural radioactivity, particularly where tuff-based structures are common.
Comparison of different correlative AFM-SEM workflows on calcite moonmilk
Correlative Probe to Electron Microscopy (CPEM) emerges as a powerful tool for analyzing nanostructured calcium carbonate, or moonmilk, from the Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia. This study demonstrates that CPEM, combining Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), simplifies the analysis of moonmilk nano-fibers while reducing risks of artefacts or contamination compared to standalone AFM measurements. The innovative AFM-in-SEM setup enhances sample characterization by providing comprehensive data without compromising resolution or integrity, showcasing its potential for advanced material studies in archaeological contexts.
Etruscan Fine Ware Pottery: Near-Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Investigation of Clay Firing Temperature and Atmosphere
Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy emerges as a powerful tool for reconstructing the firing conditions of Etruscan fine ware pottery, offering insights into the temperature and atmospheric environment used by ancient potters. This study demonstrates that NIR diffuse reflection spectroscopy can effectively correlate clay firing parameters with the physical properties of ceramic paste, enabling archaeologists to classify pottery sherds from the UNESCO-listed necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia more accurately. By comparing spectroscopic data with mineralogical analyses obtained through X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, researchers uncovered distinct patterns linked to firing temperature and atmosphere. Multivariate analysis further refined these correlations, providing a robust method for understanding the technological choices of Etruscan potters.
Predatori esotici e prede nostrane nell’invenzione pittorica della Tomba dei Demoni Azzurri (V secolo) della necropoli di Monterozzi, a Tarquinia
A groundbreaking analysis of the Etruscan Tomba dei Demoni Azzurri (5th century BCE) in Tarquinia's Monterozzi necropolis reveals the first documented use of exotic felids, likely from the Near East or North Africa, as hunting auxiliaries. Multispectral imaging and multivariate analysis restored and virtually reconstructed the tomb's wall paintings, uncovering a sophisticated iconographic program featuring indigenous prey alongside these rare predatory species. This discovery sheds new light on Etruscan artistic and cultural practices, particularly their depiction of exotic animals in ritual or funerary contexts.
Protecting monuments and plant biodiversity in archaeological sites: the case of the Etruscan necropolis of “Monterozzi” (Tarquinia, central Italy)
A study highlights the coexistence of monument protection and plant biodiversity conservation at the UNESCO-listed Etruscan Necropolis of Monterozzi (Tarquinia, Italy). Researchers demonstrate that strategic landscaping—integrating native flora with archaeological structures—enhances both site preservation and ecological resilience. The approach combines botanical surveys, soil analysis, and historical documentation to identify plant species that stabilize tombs while supporting local biodiversity. Findings suggest that such integrated management can mitigate erosion and climate impacts without compromising the integrity of ancient monuments.
Analysis of moonmilk nanofibers in the etruscan tombs of Tarquinia
Researchers analyzing moonmilk nanofibers in the Etruscan tombs of Tarquinia, Italy, discovered that the type of rock surrounding these speleothems influences their crystal structure. Moonmilk, a secondary calcite deposit, was found to form finer and thinner nanofibers when associated with Sabbione (a hybrid sandstone) compared to Macco (a calcarenite). This difference is attributed to slower growth kinetics in Sabbione due to its lower calcium content. The study used Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to examine samples from twelve tombs, providing insights into the formation mechanisms of calcium carbonate nanostructures with implications for geomicrobiology, astrobiology, medicine, and nanotechnology.
Plant DNA Barcode as a Tool for Root Identification in Hypogea: The Case of the Etruscan Tombs of Tarquinia (Central Italy)
Researchers successfully employed DNA barcoding to identify plant rootlets threatening the Etruscan tombs of Tarquinia, demonstrating its efficacy as a rapid and reliable tool for assessing vegetation risks in underground historical sites. Using four genetic markers (rbcL, matK, nrITS, and psbA-trnH), all 14 root samples were identified at species (92.9%) or genus level (7.01%). Notably, certain eudicotyledons with taproots, such as Echium italicum and Foeniculum vulgare, showed recurrence, suggesting their potential for deeper root penetration. The study underscores the need for expanded reference datasets and further investigations to validate these findings, particularly for meso-Mediterranean perennial herbaceous species. These results highlight the importance of proactive vegetation management in archaeological sites to mitigate mechanical and chemical damage from invasive roots.
Vegetation Cover and Tumuli’s Shape as Affecting Factors of Microclimate and Biodeterioration Risk for the Conservation of Etruscan Tombs (Tarquinia, Italy)
Research reveals that evergreen vegetation significantly stabilizes microclimatic conditions within Etruscan tombs, reducing temperature fluctuations and biodeterioration risks—particularly during critical late-summer periods. The study, conducted over 10 months at the Monterozzi Necropolis in Tarquinia, Italy, compared two tombs with an established Cynodon dactylon turf to control sites. Findings highlight that while vegetation cover mitigates overheating and maintains humidity, tumuli shape (e.g., orientation) and soil depth also play pivotal roles in microclimatic stability. The research underscores the need for tailored plant selection to balance conservation needs with cultural ecosystem services, offering actionable insights for preserving hypogeal paintings and similar heritage sites.
Characterization of nanostructured calcium carbonate found in two ancient Etruscan tombs
Researchers have identified a unique nanostructured calcium carbonate, resembling moonmilk, coating the walls and frescoes of two ancient Etruscan tombs in Tarquinia's Monterozzi necropolis. This material, characterized by rod-like crystalline structures with an average thickness of 400 nm, suggests a biological origin, supported by the presence of microorganisms. The study employed advanced techniques such as SEM/EDX, FT-IR, and XRD to analyze powder samples collected during restoration interventions. The findings provide insights into the formation and composition of this rare patina, shedding light on its potential origin and significance in archaeological contexts.
Considerazioni sulla conservazione di un paesaggio archeologico etrusco: il caso delle fortificazioni di Cerveteri
The Etruscan fortifications of Cerveteri, once part of the significant city-state Caere, face severe conservation challenges due to prolonged abandonment and uncontrolled vegetation. While these conditions threaten structural integrity, they also create a unique archaeological landscape where architecture and nature coexist precariously. This study highlights the importance of preserving this evocative symbiosis and proposes a conservative approach to manage the relationship between ruins and vegetation. The research focuses on the deteriorating state of the fortifications, offering insights into their preservation while maintaining their historical and environmental significance.
Scavo e scuola a Tarquinia. Internazionalizzazione e formazione a difesa della fragilità di un sito UNESCO
Interdisciplinary research at the Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2004, reveals significant geomorphological threats to the ancient city's buffer zone. The study highlights how continuous, systematic research—spanning nearly four decades—combines advanced topographic techniques (LiDAR, GIS, geophysical prospections) with archaeological investigations to map the site's integration into modern urban planning. Findings underscore the dual fragility of the site: vulnerability to natural phenomena and the risk of research abandonment due to legal-administrative constraints. The research advocates for sustainable agricultural development that preserves the metropolis's vast, yet largely unexplored, buried archaeological potential while adhering to UNESCO safeguard rules for archaeological, environmental, and landscape protection.
The Sarpedon Krater: The Life and Afterlife of a Greek Vase
A Greek Attic red-figure krater, the Sarpedon Krater (c. 515–510 BCE), stands out for its innovative use of foreshortened perspective and its depiction of the Trojan hero Sarpedon's death, marking a significant advancement in ancient Greek vase painting. The krater, created by Euphronios, was discovered in an Etruscan tomb near Cerveteri, Italy, and later repatriated to the National Archaeological Museum of Cerveteri after being acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Spivey argues that this artwork's influence extends beyond its technical mastery, resonating through classical mythology, symposiastic culture, and later artistic traditions, including Roman sarcophagi and Renaissance devotional art. The study explores how such imagery may evoke empathy or catharsis, drawing on neuroscience theories about visual responses to suffering.
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