Publications
A possible underground roadway for transportation facilities in Kathmandu Valley: A racking deformation of underground rectangular structures
A proposed underground roadway for Kathmandu Valley demonstrates stability under significant forces, including overlying pressure and seismic loads. The study introduces a cut-and-cover rectangular tunnel design with two cells, each 10 meters wide and 5.5 meters high, capable of withstanding live loads, uplift pressures, and lateral earth pressures. Non-linear dynamic time history analyses using data from the El Centro and Gorkha earthquakes showed maximum displacements of 23.63 mm and 16 mm respectively, confirming structural resilience. This design addresses traffic congestion and accident risks in Kathmandu Valley, particularly affecting teens and young adults, by providing a subsurface infrastructure solution that meets geometric and stability requirements.
Liquefaction hazard assessment and ground failure probability analysis in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal
A significant liquefaction hazard exists across the Kathmandu Valley, with central and southern regions showing higher susceptibility to ground failure during earthquakes. This conclusion stems from a detailed analysis using borehole data from 410 locations, including SPT-N values, to assess liquefaction potential for three scenario earthquakes. The study employed established methods to generate hazard maps, revealing that most areas face medium to very high risk of liquefaction damage, validated by observations from the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (Mw 7.8). Target SPT-N values were also determined to mitigate future liquefaction risks in vulnerable zones.
Urban growth modelling and social vulnerability assessment for a hazardous Kathmandu Valley
By 2050, Kathmandu Valley’s built-up area is projected to double to 352 km², with the most socially vulnerable villages accounting for 29% of this expansion—11 percentage points higher than today. Urban growth in high-risk zones, including 100-year and 1000-year floodplains as well as liquefaction-susceptible areas, will also surge significantly. The study combines global hazard models with the cellular-automata SLEUTH urban-growth simulation and a tailored social vulnerability index to map these risks, underscoring the urgent need for policy interventions to mitigate future hazards in rapidly developing regions.
Assessing air pollution tolerance of plant species in vegetation traffic barriers in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
Cinnamomum camphora emerges as the most resilient plant species for roadside vegetation barriers in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, demonstrating superior tolerance to air pollution. This finding is significant for urban greening strategies aimed at mitigating traffic-related pollutants. The study evaluated nine plant species using biochemical parameters (relative water content, leaf extract pH, total chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid) alongside dust-capturing potential. While Schefflera pueckleri, Psidium guajava, and Ficus benjamina exhibited sensitivity to pollution, others like Nerium oleander and Albizia julibrissin showed moderate tolerance but excelled in dust capture. N. oleander, in particular, stood out for its high dust-capturing ability, making C. camphora, N. oleander, and A. julibrissin the top candidates for roadside planting to enhance air quality.
Investigating the nexus of groundwater levels, rainfall and land-use in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
Groundwater levels in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, exhibit strong seasonal fluctuations directly tied to monsoonal rainfall, with agricultural areas showing significant recharge and built-up zones experiencing limited replenishment due to high extraction and surface sealing. A two-year analysis of 35 citizen-scientist monitored wells revealed groundwater depths ranging from −0.11m (above ground) to 11.5m, averaging 4.24m with a standard deviation of 2.29m. While agricultural land uses demonstrated an 80% strong and statistically significant correlation between rainfall and groundwater levels, non-agricultural areas showed weaker correlations due to anthropogenic factors. Highly permeable sand and gravel zones in northern districts act as consistent recharge sources, whereas less permeable clay and silt areas display greater seasonal variability. The study underscores the potential of citizen-generated hydrogeologic data and emphasizes the critical role of land-use planning in sustaining groundwater resources amid rapid depletion.
Multi-Hazard Risk Assessment of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
A multi-hazard risk assessment of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, reveals that densely populated areas and older settlements face high to very high exposure to cascading natural hazards. The study, one of the first of its kind in Nepal, integrates flood, landslide, earthquake, and urban fire risks using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Geographical Information System (GIS). By superimposing individual hazard maps, researchers identified critical zones where multiple threats converge, particularly in central valley regions. This holistic approach provides stakeholders with actionable insights for preparedness and planning, addressing a gap in regional risk assessment practices.
Release of Antibiotic-Resistance Genes from Hospitals and a Wastewater Treatment Plant in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
A recent study highlights the significant role of hospitals and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as sources of antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The research detected clinically relevant ARGs, including sul1, tet(B), blaCTX-M, blaNDM-1, and qnrS, along with a class one integron gene (intI1), in urban rivers, hospitals, and municipal wastewater. Concentrations of these genes in WWTP and hospital effluents ranged from 6.2 to 12.5 log10 copies per liter, underscoring their potential environmental dissemination. Notably, the blaNDM-1 gene was found to likely spread through untreated hospital wastewater, while other ARGs showed significant positive correlations with intI1, suggesting its role in ARG transfer. The study also emphasizes the need for further research on ARGs in drinking water sources due to groundwater-surface water interactions.
Ambient air quality in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, during the pre-monsoon: concentrations and sources of particulate matter and trace gases
Aerosol liquid water content and gas-aerosol phase partitioning of NH3, HNO3, and HCl in the Kathmandu Valley vary significantly with diurnal temperature and humidity changes. The study identified multiphase halogen-radical chemistry involving chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br), which impacts regional air quality. Molecular markers for primary and secondary sources indicate that garbage burning contributes up to three times more than previously estimated, while biomass burning remains a significant source of organic carbon in PM2.5. Anthropogenic combustion sources, including biomass burning, garbage burning, and fossil fuel combustion, are the greatest contributors to PM pollution in the valley.
Assessment of Changes in Land Use/Land Cover and Land Surface Temperatures and Their Impact on Surface Urban Heat Island Phenomena in the Kathmandu Valley (1988–2018)
A significant increase in land surface temperatures (LST) of 5–7 °C within urban areas and 3–5 °C at city boundaries was observed in the Kathmandu Valley between 1988 and 2018, coinciding with a rapid expansion of impervious surfaces by 16.34%—primarily at the expense of agricultural land (17.03%). This urbanization trend, analyzed using decadal Landsat imagery and the Support Vector Machine algorithm, exacerbated the Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI) effect, as evidenced by a sharp decrease in LST from the city center outward, where vegetation cover increased. Conversely, agricultural areas beyond 20–25 km from the center showed higher LST due to intensified farming activity. The study also highlighted a strong negative correlation between LST and vegetation indices (NDVI, NDMI) but a positive link with built-up areas (NDBI), underscoring urbanization's role in heat amplification. With Kathmandu's population projected to rise from 2.88 million (2016) to 3.85 million by 2035, the findings stress the urgent need for green urban planning to mitigate SUHI impacts.
Characterization of airborne dust samples collected from core areas of Kathmandu Valley
A study on airborne dust in Kathmandu Valley reveals the presence of asbestiform minerals, characterized by high aspect ratios, alongside clay, crystalline silicate, and carbonate minerals. Using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy-Dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX), researchers identified quartz with high crystallinity and variable elemental distributions, including C, O, Mg, Ca, and Si. Notably, some minerals in the dust samples were also found in cement, suggesting construction materials as a potential source of airborne pollutants. This research provides critical insights into the mineralogical composition of particulate matter in one of the world's most polluted urban areas.
Trend of urban growth in Nepal with a focus in Kathmandu Valley: A review of processes and drivers of change
Nepal, one of the world's fastest urbanizing countries, has seen its urban population growth rate nearly double from 3.6% in 1991 to 6.5% in 2001, with the number of urban centers surging from 58 in 2013 to 293 in 2017. Kathmandu Valley, serving as the epicenter of this transformation, now hosts an estimated 2.54 million people and is expanding at a rapid 6.5% annually, making it one of South Asia's fastest-growing metropolitan areas. This study reveals that the shift from rural to urban dominance in Nepal is largely driven by governmental administrative decisions merging rural units into municipalities and significant rural-to-urban migration. However, this unplanned urbanization has led to environmental degradation, increased poverty, and heightened vulnerability to multi-hazard risks, particularly for the urban poor. While government initiatives aim to foster inclusive, equitable, and resilient urban development through smart city programs, their implementation faces challenges due to coordination gaps, financial constraints, and constitutional barriers that restrict property regulations, exacerbating disaster risks in urban areas like Kathmandu Valley.
Rapid Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Monitoring Land Use Land Cover Dynamics of a Himalayan City with Landsat Imageries
Between 1989 and 2016, the urban area of the Kathmandu Valley expanded by 412%, driven primarily by the conversion of agricultural land. This rapid urban growth, analyzed through a pixel-based hybrid classification of Landsat imagery, reveals a concentric expansion pattern along major roads, significantly altering the valley's cityscape. The study identifies rural-to-urban migration and the centrality of Kathmandu as key proximate causes behind this transformation. While most expansion occurred between 1989 and 2009, urban growth continues, underscoring the need for systematic monitoring of land use and land cover changes in this Himalayan metropolitan valley.
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