Publications
Female Images of Sigiriya: Iconography and Interpretation
A fragment of monumental paintings from the 5th-century AD palace and park complex of Sigiriya, featuring 22 female figures on its rock face, offers new insights into the iconography and function of this UNESCO World Heritage Site. Despite decades of research, the purpose and meaning behind these unique paintings remain debated. The study emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to interpret the paintings in relation to the complex's architectural layout, functionality, and overall design. By examining various interpretations and stylistic parallels, the author proposes an original understanding of how these female images contribute to Sigiriya's spatial composition and conceptual design.
Reimagining Sigiriya Frescoes: Legal Implications of Interpreting the Figures as Performers in Tangible Cultural Heritage Management
Existing legal frameworks in Sri Lanka and UNESCO guidelines for World Heritage Sites provide sufficient flexibility to reinterpret the Sigiriya frescoes as representations of performers without requiring statutory amendments. This reinterpretation could enhance the site's cultural value recognition by connecting tangible and intangible heritage elements, provided careful documentation ensures compliance with authenticity standards. The study demonstrates that while legal frameworks support interpretive evolution, successful reinterpretation must balance scholarly innovation with preservation integrity to maintain fundamental protection objectives for sites of Outstanding Universal Value.
The Impact of Tourist Guides Trust-Building and Rapport Development on International Tourists Satisfaction: A Quantitative Analysis at Sigiriya Heritage Site
A strong positive correlation (r=0.831, p<0.01) exists between tourist guides' trust-building and rapport development behaviors and international tourists' satisfaction at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. Regression analysis further demonstrated that these guide-tourist interaction dynamics significantly predict satisfaction outcomes (R² = 0.690, F=218.530, p<0.001), accounting for 69% of the variance. This quantitative study, based on data from 100 international tourists, highlights the critical role of trust and rapport in enhancing visitor experiences at heritage sites, with implications for guide training and assessment standards.
A Morphological Analysis of Purwa Kriya in the Sigiriya Graffiti
A morphological analysis of Sinhala pūrwa kriyā (past participles) in the Sigiriya graffiti reveals distinctive verb structures from the 8th to 10th centuries AD, offering new insights into the historical development of Sinhala grammar. The study, based on qualitative analysis of Sigiri Graffiti by Senarath Paranavithana and linguistic sources, identifies unique features in these medieval texts that preserve linguistic characteristics of the period. By applying morphological frameworks, researchers uncovered patterns in past tense verb forms, contributing to a deeper understanding of Sinhala language evolution during this era.
An analytical review of ancient coating technology employed at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka
A groundbreaking analysis reveals the sophisticated ancient coating technology used at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka's 5th-century rock fortress. The study identifies key materials such as Sesame oil, Dorana oil, Hal Dummala, and plant gums through modern chemical studies, offering insights into their compositional properties. This research not only sheds light on the advanced techniques of ancient civilizations but also opens avenues for developing sustainable, environmentally friendly coatings that could inspire future material science innovations beyond historical replicas.
Application of Scenario Modeling Method for Virtual Reconstruction of Lost Monuments Using the Example of Sigirya
Virtual reconstruction of lost monuments, such as the 5th-century palace complex of Sigiriya, reveals that these structures served as cultural centers aimed at fostering international relations and attracting merchants. The study applies scenario modeling—a method combining iconographic analysis, written sources, and archaeological data—to fill gaps in historical understanding. This interdisciplinary approach, enhanced by modern digital technologies, enables virtual experiments without physical trials, offering a detailed reconstruction of Sigiriya's original purpose and function. The research demonstrates the potential of scenario modeling to resolve controversies surrounding monument functionality while advancing education and tourism.
Geodiversity as a Driver of Tourism: A study of Sri Lankan Geological Heritage
Sri Lanka's geodiversity emerges as a powerful driver of tourism, significantly influencing tourist motivations, perceptions, and experiences. This study reveals that unique geological features such as Adam’s Peak, Horton Plains, and Sigiriya not only attract visitors but also foster strong emotional connections, with themes of awe and wonder prominently featured in tourist narratives. While pre-visit awareness remains a gap, geodiversity enables diverse tourism activities, from adventure to cultural exploration, thereby diversifying Sri Lanka's tourism offerings and promoting sustainable development. The research underscores the potential for geotourism to attract niche markets while emphasizing the need for improved geoconservation practices, targeted educational initiatives, and stakeholder collaboration. By aligning with global sustainable goals, Sri Lanka can position itself as a premier geotourism destination, balancing economic benefits with ecological and cultural preservation.
Guardians of the Sigiriya Frescoes: A Legal Perspective on Cultural Heritage Management
Current legal frameworks for protecting Sri Lanka's Sigiriya World Heritage Site, particularly its fifth-century frescoes, fall short of international conservation standards. The study identifies critical gaps in environmental protection, emergency response regulations, and site-specific conservation protocols, despite the Antiquities Ordinance and UNESCO guidelines. It advocates for redefining Sigiriya's legal status and proposes legislative reforms to enhance heritage management, contributing to global discussions on cultural preservation.
Guardians of the Sigiriya Frescoes: A Legal Perspective on Cultural Heritage Management in Sri Lanka
A critical analysis reveals significant gaps in Sri Lanka's legal framework for protecting the Sigiriya frescoes, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. These fifth-century wall paintings, depicting the 'Maidens of the Clouds,' face vulnerabilities due to insufficient environmental safeguards and lack of emergency-response regulations. The study highlights the inadequacy of current laws, including the Antiquities Ordinance and Central Cultural Fund Act, compared to international conservation standards. It proposes redefining Sigiriya's legal status and targeted legislative reforms to ensure sustained preservation, contributing to global heritage law discourse.
TARAR: An Intelligent Tour Guide Avatar for Mobile Real-Time Augmented Reality in Heritage Sites
TARAR, an intelligent mobile augmented reality (AR) tour guide system featuring a 3D avatar, successfully integrates markerless localization, path-based navigation, and natural voice interaction to deliver immersive, real-time heritage site experiences. Field-tested at UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Sigiriya in Sri Lanka, TARAR demonstrated its effectiveness by combining motion synthesis, lip-syncing, and context-aware animations to emulate human-led tour behavior. This breakthrough addresses the longstanding challenge of merging complex spatial guidance with conversational interfaces in dynamic heritage environments, offering a user-centered AR solution that enhances engagement and educational value for visitors.
The Pleasure Gardens of Sigiriya: A New Approach
A new interpretation of Sigiriya's pleasure gardens reveals their sophisticated design and symbolic significance, challenging traditional views on the layout and function of these spaces. This study employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating archaeological evidence, architectural analysis, and historical texts to reconstruct the gardens' original purpose and aesthetic intent. Findings suggest that the gardens were not merely decorative but served as integral components of Sigiriya's political and cultural landscape, reflecting the advanced urban planning and artistic innovation of its creators.
The Sigiriya Murals of Sri Lanka: A Comprehensive Art Historical Analysis
The Sigiriya murals, dating back to the 5th century CE, showcase advanced fresco painting techniques and artistic innovation in ancient Sri Lanka. A comprehensive analysis reveals that these murals, particularly those depicting celestial maidens, blend South Asian artistic influences with indigenous creativity. The study employs interdisciplinary methods—art historical, archaeological, and anthropological—to examine stylistic attributes, thematic content, and socio-political contexts, while also scrutinizing the materials, pigments, and techniques used. This research underscores the sophistication of ancient Sri Lankan artistry and its unique contributions to global rock art traditions.
An Investigative Study of Contemporary Names of the Persons Illustrated by the Sigiri Graffiti (From the First Hundred Set of Graffities)
A groundbreaking analysis of the first hundred Sigiriya graffiti reveals that 56 can be attributed to specific individuals, including royals, civil servants, merchants, and monks. This study sheds light on personal names used in Sri Lanka between the 7th and 13th centuries, uncovering social representations and employment nature through a multi-method approach combining literature review, field research, interviews, and epigraphic analysis. The findings suggest that certain names may indicate caste or tribal affiliations, providing insights into historical social structures. This research sets the stage for broader studies on Sigiriya graffiti.
Exploring the Tourist Perceptions of Destination Components at the Sigiriya World Heritage Site: A Tripadvisor-Based Study
A key insight from this study is that 'authentic experience' significantly shapes tourists' perceptions and recommendations at the Sigiriya World Heritage Site. Analyzing TripAdvisor reviews through a content analysis framework (5'A's: Attractions, Accessibility, Amenities, Activities, Accommodation), researchers found that tourists prioritize scenery, historical significance, cost, and crowd levels when evaluating attractions. Additionally, they emphasized the importance of accessible facilities, diverse activities like rock climbing and photography, and accommodation quality. The study proposes expanding the 5'A's framework to include 'authentic experiences' to better understand tourist behavior and enhance heritage tourism management. Practical implications suggest preserving the site's natural and historical value while improving accessibility and amenities to offer more authentic experiences.
Forecasting Future Tourism Demand to Popular Tourist Attractions to Asses Overtourism: A Machine Learning Modeling Approach
A machine learning model forecasts that tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka will nearly double from 2024 to 2027, with significant strain on the carrying capacity of two iconic UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Yala National Park and Sigiriya Rock Fortress. The study estimates future visitor demand as daily safari jeep counts for Yala (a wildlife preserve) and foot traffic for Sigiriya (an ancient rock fortress), considering seasonal variations. Without mitigation, overtourism could adversely impact these environmentally and archaeologically sensitive sites, particularly during peak tourist months. This research highlights the urgent need for policy measures to limit daily visitations and ensure sustainable tourism.
Prototyping a coating based on ancient technology: a case study in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka
A modern prototype coating, inspired by ancient Sigiriya techniques, demonstrates exceptional adhesion and hardness (8H) while maintaining eco-friendly properties. This breakthrough was achieved through a study analyzing natural extracts like wood apple gum and Dorana oil, revealing their potential for water resistance and longevity in cultural preservation. The research employed an interdisciplinary approach, combining archaeology, materials science, and chemistry, to replicate ancient coatings found on Sigiriya's paintings. Five treatments with varying ratios of natural ingredients were tested, with the 20:80 ratio of water to Dorana oil showing superior performance. These findings offer a sustainable alternative for heritage conservation, blending innovation with traditional values while addressing environmental concerns.
Archaeobotanical Perspective on the “Vetkol Flower” in Sigiri Graffiti, Sri Lanka
A groundbreaking analysis of Sigiriya graffiti, dating from the 8th to 10th century, reveals that ancient writings on the rock shelter's mirror wall drew analogies between the site's famous frescoes and flowers of the Luffa genus, a tropical gourd family. This study bridges ethnoarchaeology and archaeobotany, providing new insights into the cultural significance and botanical knowledge embedded in these early inscriptions. By examining the 'Vetkol Flower' motif, researchers uncover a layer of historical interpretation that connects artistic expression to plant taxonomy, offering a unique perspective on the region's rich heritage.
Assessment of overweight, obesity and malnutrition status of Purana (old) population residing in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka
A study of the Purana population, a genetically distinct group living near Sigiriya’s Bolder Garden complex, reveals lower rates of overweight and obesity compared to urban Sri Lankans. Using global and South Asian BMI cutoffs, researchers found that 9.3% of men and 17.6% of women were obese under global standards, while 20.6% of men and 47.2% of females met obesity criteria based on waist measurements. The study, involving 306 adults with Purana ancestry traced over three generations, employed precise anthropometric measurements to assess nutritional status. Findings suggest that this historically significant population maintains a leaner profile than broader Sri Lankan urban populations.
Reading Architecture in Landscape: Visitor Reflections at a Mirror Wall (Sigiriya, Sri Lanka)
A unique set of visitor inscriptions on Sigiriya's Mirror Wall (7th–13th centuries) reveals how the site's architecture and landscape were designed to shape poetic responses. These inscriptions, written in an emergent literary language derived from spoken Sinhala, demonstrate a deliberate curation of visitor experiences through mental imagery and regulated textual representation. The study suggests that visiting Sigiriya was not just a personal rite of passage but also a historical event that strengthened both the literary community and its designed landscape. By analyzing these inscriptions alongside the site's architecture, researchers propose a new understanding of Sigiriya’s gardens as integral to its cultural and poetic significance.
Romans Across the Indian Ocean: Sigiriya Lion Rock & Alexandrian Lighthouse in Sri Lanka
A comparative analysis of the ancient funerary sites Aï Khanum and Sigiriya reveals shared cultural elements linking Greco-Egyptian, Roman-Syrian, and Kushan traditions. Both sites, despite their geographical separation, share features associated with astral cults and rituals related to Paramita, symbolizing the transition to another realm. The study challenges conventional narratives by highlighting unexpected similarities in material culture and ecological contexts, suggesting deeper historical connections than previously recognized. Researchers were invited to reassess these enigmatic sites based on factual evidence from two distinct ecosystems. This work merges findings from separate studies published in 2020 and 2021, offering a novel perspective on cross-cultural exchanges during antiquity.
The Prehistoric Nonhuman Primate Subfossil Remains at Sigiriya Potana Cave, Sri Lanka
Archaeological excavations at the Sigiriya Potana Cave, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Ancient City of Sigiriya, have uncovered nonhuman primate subfossil remains dating back to approximately 6000 BP. These fossils, including mandible and maxillary fragments with teeth, provide evidence that nonhuman primates were a significant food resource for prehistoric cave inhabitants in Sri Lanka during the Terminal Pleistocene/Holocene period. The study, conducted between 1990 and 1991, used carbon-14 dating techniques to determine the age of the cave deposits. Odontometrical comparisons confirmed that the subfossils correspond to three extant species: two langur species (Semnopithecus vetulus and Semnopithecus priam thersites) and a macaque (Macaca sinica). Some of the material was found to be burnt, suggesting consumption by humans. This finding aligns with broader evidence from South Asia indicating the importance of nonhuman primates as a food source during this period.
Seven Years in Sihagiri Bim - An Account of a Sri Lankan-Swedish Collaboration in Settlement Archaeology in Sigiriya 1988—1995
A collaborative effort between Sri Lankan and Swedish archaeologists from 1988 to 1995 significantly advanced the understanding of settlement patterns and subsistence strategies in Sri Lanka's dry zone, spanning from the Mesolithic period to the present. Through comprehensive surveys, excavations, and ethnoarchaeological studies, the project not only developed a robust framework for Sri Lankan settlement archaeology but also provided essential field training for a generation of young Sri Lankan archaeologists. The research methodology, which combined rigorous fieldwork with interdisciplinary approaches, yielded valuable insights into the region's archaeological landscape while addressing methodological constraints unique to the study area.
Water Harvesting and Water Management: A Discussion of the Implications of Scale in Artificial Irrigation: the Sri Lankan Example
A re-evaluation of pre-colonial irrigation systems in Sri Lanka's dry zone challenges the traditional view that large-scale artificial irrigation was inherently tied to centralization and state control. Focusing on the archaeologically well-documented uplands of Sigiriya, a 5th-century AD capital city, this study argues that such systems did not operate independently but were integral to broader cultural landscapes with complex chronologies. By adopting an alternative approach that emphasizes local context over large-scale undertakings, the research sheds new light on the social and environmental implications of water management in ancient Sri Lanka.
Graffiti de Sigiriya (Sri Lanka) (Les)
A thousand poetic graffiti, etched by medieval visitors between the 8th and 10th centuries on Sigiriya's ancient rock face, offer a rare glimpse into cultural practices of the past. These inscriptions, studied and transcribed by epigraphist Senarat Paranavitana, provide invaluable insights into the site's history. However, his interpretation included imaginary interlinear readings from other surfaces, which he used to support his theories about Sigiriya's evolution.
Relief generation and soil in the dry zone of Sri Lanka
Research identifies the dry zone of Sri Lanka, characterized by less than 1750 mm annual rainfall and at least three arid months, as a region where recent latosol formation is climatically bounded. The study reveals that this zone features distinct geomorphological traits, including inselbergs and triangular embayments formed by the youngest planation surface meeting the central hill country. Notably, large hollows or caves are observed in bare rock inselbergs around Anuradhapura, Sigiriya, and Dambulla, providing insights into the region's geological history. The research employs a combination of geomorphological and pedological analysis to delineate these features, offering valuable understanding for both academic and conservation contexts.
Role of destination smartness in shaping tourist satisfaction: A SEM based on technological attributes in Sri Lanka
Smart tourism significantly enhances tourist satisfaction, particularly through the integration of mobile technology and smartphone functionalities. A study on Sri Lankan tourists visiting UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Sigiriya revealed that smart features—such as information search, communication, entertainment, social networking, and mobility-related tools—play a pivotal role in shaping positive travel experiences. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) with 1,052 respondents across multiple districts, researchers found partial mediation effects between smart tourism attributes and satisfaction, highlighting the potential for Sri Lanka to develop as a competitive smart tourist destination. This insight underscores the importance of embedding technology within destinations to enrich visitor experiences and bolster global competitiveness.
Soil and slope development in the wet zone of Sri Lanka
Research on the geomorphology of Sigiriya Rock, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka, reveals that its steep, convex rock slopes have remained largely unchanged for at least 2000 years. This longevity challenges expectations given their steepness and tropical weathering conditions, suggesting resilience in slope evolution under such environments. The study avoids detailed theoretical or measurement-based approaches due to the diversity of landforms in Sri Lanka, instead relying on field observations to draw tentative conclusions. Notably, overhung recesses housing ancient paintings (dating back to AD 485) show minimal weathering, indicating prolonged stability in these tropical rock formations.
Tourism-Driven Mobilities
A novel scale to measure tourism-driven mobilities (TDM) from the perspective of local residents has been developed and validated, addressing a significant gap in empirical research. The study, conducted at UNESCO World Heritage Sites Dambulla and Sigiriya, identified governance and capital as key stimuli for TDM through confirmatory factor analysis, which explained 84% of the variance. This scale not only advances methodological directions in tourism mobility research but also provides a framework to quantify TDM, though further validation is needed to establish its generalizability.
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