Publications
Variations in the Composition and Structure of Muridae Communities along Gradients of Anthropogenic Disturbance in the Northern Sector of Virunga National Park (PNVi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central Africa)
Intense anthropogenic pressures in the northern sector of Virunga National Park (PNVi) significantly alter Muridae communities, with species diversity and composition serving as sensitive indicators of habitat disturbance. Research reveals three distinct functional groups: forest-specialist species like Hybomys lunaris and Dasymys montanus thrive only in lightly disturbed habitats, while Lemniscomys striatus and Mastomys natalensis dominate moderately disturbed areas, and Arvicanthis niloticus flourishes in heavily degraded zones. A strong negative correlation (τ = –0.54; p = 0.04) between disturbance intensity and species presence underscores the detrimental impacts of village hunting (37%) and unsustainable agriculture (25%). The study, using indirect tracking methods and statistical analysis, highlights the critical role of habitat integrity in maintaining Muridae richness and resilience, emphasizing the need for strengthened conservation measures to protect threatened species and fragile ecosystems.
Anthropogenic Disturbances in Northwestern Virunga Forest Amid Armed Conflict
Despite the presence of army camps within Virunga National Park, forest fragmentation did not significantly increase between 2016 and 2023. While some sites showed passive forest restoration due to reduced conversion of forest areas during periods of insecurity, nine anthropogenic factors—primarily cash crops (74.17%), food crops (72.50%), and trees cut for energy (61.61%)—continued to disturb the forest. A multiscalar approach, combining spatial analysis with field observations, revealed these disturbances, though their full extent requires further detailed study.
Economic Potential and Value Chain of Wild Edible Mushrooms and Cultivated Mushrooms from the Virunga National Park and Surrounding Area in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Cultivated mushrooms (CM) offer significantly higher economic returns compared to wild edible mushrooms (WEM) in the Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. A study found that a CM grower can earn up to $1506 annually by selling 502 kg, while pickers and sellers earn considerably less despite lower production volumes. This suggests that domestication of WEM could substantially boost household incomes in the region. The research employed a digital questionnaire and direct observations across four value chains (Goma-Kitshanga-Mweso, Goma-Rutshuru, Beni-Mutwanga, and Beni-Mangina), analyzing sales data from 432 respondents to assess economic potential and value chain dynamics.
Gorillas are arboreal apes
Gorillas, long perceived as primarily terrestrial apes, are far more arboreal than previously believed. A study comparing frugivorous populations of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, and western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Loango National Park, Gabon, found that both groups spent significantly more time in trees than the Virunga mountain gorillas. Adult females in these populations were 21% and 34% arboreal, respectively, compared to just 7% for Virunga gorillas, while adult males were 18.1% and 18.6% arboreal versus 2%. The research challenges the assumption that gorilla arboreality is solely driven by fruit consumption or limited by body size, revealing that nearly half of Loango gorilla fruit-eating occurred on the ground and most arboreal feeding involved non-fruit items like leaves. These findings reshape our understanding of gorilla ecomorphology and have implications for interpreting fossil ape evolution.
Impacts of Armed Conflicts on Tourism in Protected Areas and Their Environment in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo.
Armed conflicts significantly reduce tourism activities in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), with eco-tourism and gorilla trekking being the most severely affected. A study involving 255 respondents—including local residents, key informants, and focus group participants—found that conflicts decreased tourist arrivals and disrupted tourism operations, particularly in areas like Nyiragongo ascension. Using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests, researchers determined that eco-tourism (97.9%) and gorilla trekking (92.7%) suffered the highest impacts. The study recommends addressing conflicts to mitigate their effects on tourism and enforcing laws to regulate resource use and movement within the park.
Land Cover Dynamics in the Northwestern Virunga Landscape: An Analysis of the Past Two Decades in a Dynamic Economic and Security Context
A study reveals that the northwestern Virunga landscape, including parts of Virunga National Park, has shown resilience to land cover changes despite socioeconomic and security challenges. Between 1995 and 2021, agricultural expansion slowed post-2000s, while forested areas fluctuated—declining by 2.90% during stable periods (1995–2005) but increasing by 2.07% amid refugee returns and insecurity (2005–2021). Savannah regions, particularly in the rift valley near Butembo, faced greater human impact than forests. The landscape's apparent stability is attributed to protected areas, notably Virunga National Park. Researchers used cartographic methods and ecological-landscape analysis to compare protected and unprotected zones, assessing composition, transitions, and spatial transformations.
Quantification of cultivated edible mushrooms and wild edible mushrooms traded around Virunga National Park, in North Kivu province, Democratic Republic of Congo
A study quantifying the trade of cultivated edible mushrooms (CEM) and wild edible mushrooms (WEM) around Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, reveals significant economic potential. While 216 respondents—growers and gatherers—were surveyed across three axes (Beni-Mutwanga, Beni-Mangina, Goma-Rutshuru, and Goma-Kitshanga-Mweso), only one CEM species, Pleurotus ostreatus, was recognized by growers. Termitomyces microcarpus dominated WEM preferences, with gatherers yielding 78 kg during the short rainy season (March–May) and 130 kg in the long season (September–January). Beyond nutritional value—including selenium, potassium, and proteins—mushrooms exhibit medicinal properties, such as anti-tumoral effects and potential benefits for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. The findings advocate for wild edible mushroom domestication to boost household income while supporting ViNP ecosystem conservation.
Verbal Autopsy and Outbreak Investigation of Anthrax in Livestock and Wildlife at the Virunga National Park Interface Area, Democratic Republic of the Congo
A study confirms the presence of Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, in North Kivu province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, highlighting its significant impact on both livestock and wildlife within the Virunga National Park interface area. The research reveals that while farmers exhibit a strong awareness of anthrax—identifying clinical symptoms and attempting prevention—they also engage in unhealthy practices related to handling and consuming contaminated meat. Transhumance livestock systems, human activities, and the absence of surveillance programs are identified as primary contributors to outbreaks. Conducted through a cross-sectional survey in 2015 and an outbreak investigation in 2021, the study underscores the urgent need for collaborative surveillance efforts to mitigate this zoonotic threat and its socioeconomic consequences.
Anoplocephalid tapeworms in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) inhabiting the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda
A study of mountain gorillas in the Virunga Massif reveals that Anoplocephala gorillae is the dominant tapeworm species, with no apparent negative impact on host health. Researchers analyzed a comprehensive dataset, including adult cestodes from necropsies and fecal samples from both night nests and identified individuals, to compare prevalence and distinguish between A. gorillae and Bertiella sp. using microscopy and PCR assays. The study found significant intra-individual fluctuation in egg shedding within short periods, emphasizing the need for multiple samples for accurate wildlife health management. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear markers provided insights into the evolutionary relationships of these cestodes.
Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Changes (LULC) in the North Talihya River Watershed (Lubero Territory, Eastern DR Congo)
A rapid decline in forest cover, coupled with increasing savannization, has been documented in the North Talihya River Watershed, a critical agropastoral region bordering Virunga National Park. Over 34 years (1987–2020), forest area shrank by 51%, from 253.11 km² to just 123.04 km², primarily due to conversion into croplands and fallows, with an annual deforestation rate of 2.18%. This transformation, driven by high population density and agricultural expansion, threatens residual forest ecosystems vital for biodiversity conservation in a UNESCO World Heritage Site-adjacent landscape. The study employed satellite imagery (Landsat TM+, ETM+, and Sentinel-2) with Maximum Likelihood classification to quantify these changes, underscoring the urgent need for ecosystem restoration strategies.
Verbal autopsy and outbreak investigation of anthrax in Livestock and Wildlife at the Virunga National Park Interface Area, Democratic Republic of the Congo
A cross-sectional survey and outbreak investigation in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, confirmed the presence of Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of anthrax, during an outbreak in 2021. The study revealed that while farmers in the region are knowledgeable about anthrax, they engage in unhealthy practices related to handling and consuming contaminated meat. Transhumance livestock management, anthropogenic activities, and the absence of a surveillance program were identified as primary contributors to anthrax outbreaks. The research highlights the need for collaborative efforts to manage these outbreaks effectively, reducing their threat to health and livelihoods in the area.
Eco-war tourism: Affective geographies, colonial durabilities and the militarization of conservation
Eco-war tourism, a growing niche where tourists seek adventure and conservation in conflict zones, intensifies green militarization and reshapes space into 'safe' and 'dangerous' areas. In Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, this phenomenon commodifies both war and gorillas, contributing to the bunkerization of tourism and the militarization of conservation efforts. The study links critical security studies and political ecology to demonstrate how eco-war tourism, rooted in colonial durabilities, produces Eurocentric ideas about nature protection while entangling diverse security interventions—military, tourism, humanitarianism, and conservation—in inherently political nature-society relations. It underscores the futility of treating 'society' and 'the environment' as separate fields of security.
Growth, Productivity, Biomass and Carbon Stock in Eucalyptus saligna and Grevillea robusta Plantations in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo
A decade-long study reveals that while Eucalyptus saligna plantations outperform Grevillea robusta in growth and productivity, G. robusta could offer greater carbon sequestration potential if managed under optimal conditions. Conducted across two sites with distinct soil and climatic conditions in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, this research assessed 20 E. saligna and 12 G. robusta plantations over three consecutive years using non-destructive inventories. Findings indicate that E. saligna is more productive, particularly at higher altitudes, while G. robusta shows promise for carbon credits due to its biomass and carbon stock characteristics. The study suggests mixed-species plantations with tailored silvicultural practices could simultaneously optimize wood-energy production and carbon storage, addressing the growing energy demands of disadvantaged communities near Virunga National Park. Optimal rotation periods were determined at 8 years for E. saligna and 12 years for G. robusta, emphasizing the need for long-term economic and sustainability assessments in this critical region.
The coloniality of crisis conservation: the transnationalization and militarization of Virunga National Park from an historical perspective
Current conservation practices in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, reflect deep-rooted colonial continuities that persist despite the park's transnationalization and militarization. The study reveals how historical colonial management structures have shaped strained relations between park authorities and local populations, even during periods labeled as 'crisis' due to prolonged conflict. These practices remain largely unchanged, operating within a colonial 'state of exception.' The research adopts an historical perspective, tracing pre-colonial history, the park's creation in 1925, and its management over time to uncover these continuities.
Business in the Heart of Darkness: SOCO's Oil Exploration in the Virunga National Park
SOCO International's oil exploration activities in Virunga National Park sparked unprecedented global backlash. The study highlights the ethical and operational challenges faced by multinational corporations when balancing profit motives with conservation imperatives in ecologically sensitive regions. Using a case study approach, the research examines SOCO's 20-year trajectory of navigating high-risk environments while delivering investor returns—culminating in intense controversy over its operations in Virunga's biodiversity-rich landscape. The analysis underscores the complex intersections of corporate strategy, environmental governance, and public perception in protected areas.
Capital and Control: Neocolonialism Through the Militarization of African Wildlife Conservation
Militarized conservation efforts in Africa, particularly through protected areas like Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, perpetuate neocolonial control over wildlife and natural resources. This study reveals that contemporary African states' environmental policies remain entangled with colonial legacies, where former powers fund militarized conservation to retain influence. By analyzing literature and Virunga's colonial history, the research demonstrates how wildlife is framed as national capital, justifying military intervention against perceived threats. The approach combines historical case analysis with a critique of existing policies, exposing the persistence of neocolonial dynamics in postcolonial Africa.
Comparing Factors Conditioning Landscape Change During Volcanic Eruption at Virunga National Park, East Africa
A study comparing landscape changes at Virunga National Park, East Africa, from 1990 to 2018 reveals that human activities are the primary drivers of transformation, particularly in central and northern regions. The research highlights how volcanic eruptions reshaped 8.36 km² of the park into new lava flows, while grasslands and shrublands also underwent significant changes due to volcanic plumes and gas emissions. Using remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS), the study analyzed Landsat images and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data to assess these dynamics. The findings underscore the need for targeted conservation strategies to mitigate human impacts and volcanic effects on protected areas, serving as a baseline for future management efforts.
Geographies of fear – The everyday (geo)politics of ‘green’ violence and militarization in the intended transboundary Virunga Conservation Area
A novel analysis reveals that fear plays a pivotal role in perpetuating 'green' violence and militarization within transboundary protected areas, such as the intended Virunga Conservation Area spanning the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda. Despite their promotion as instruments of peacebuilding, these regions experience rising violent conservation practices, driven by discourses of fear among park rangers. These narratives, shaped by governmental interests in sovereignty and territorial integrity, undermine transboundary collaboration efforts. The study, based on long-term ethnographic fieldwork, argues that integrating the voices of those affected by these practices can pave the way for non-violent conservation pathways in the future.
Lakes as Rebellious Landscapes: From ‘Fishing Rebels’ to ‘Fishy State Officials’ in DR Congo
Lakes, often overlooked as political spaces, are dynamic arenas of power contestation where state authorities and rebel groups engage in fluid control over resources. This study challenges the binary view of landscapes as either subversive or state-controlled by analyzing Lake Edward in Virunga National Park, DR Congo. It reveals how park authorities' attempts to manage the lake through infrastructural and military interventions face resistance from both rebel groups ('fishing rebels') and other state actors ('fishy state officials'). Using a longue durée perspective, the research embeds contemporary conflicts within historical political and social landscapes, arguing for an understanding of lakes as 'rebellious landscapes'—spaces governed fluidly by multiple de facto authorities. The findings highlight the interconnectedness of the lake and the limitations of enforcing controlled enclaves to counter subversion and promote sustainable fishing.
Subjective modeling choices and the robustness of impact evaluations in conservation science
A comprehensive analysis of Virunga National Park reveals that subjective modeling choices can significantly influence the estimated impacts on tree cover loss and carbon storage, despite consistent findings across models. The study evaluated over 5000 candidate models to assess how variations in statistical matching algorithms, parametrization, and covariates affected results. While all valid models confirmed a decrease in tree cover loss and an increase in carbon storage from 2000 to 2019, the magnitude of these changes varied by up to threefold. Notably, the choice of matching algorithm emerged as a critical factor affecting point estimates, underscoring the need for structured robustness checks in conservation science to ensure credible findings.
Variability of weaning age in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei)
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, are weaned at a significantly later age than their counterparts in the Virunga Volcanoes, averaging 57.5 months, more than a year longer than Virunga gorillas. This study, analyzing data from four gorilla groups, found that sons were weaned later than daughters, while maternal parity and dominance rank did not influence weaning age. Bwindi mothers often resumed mating while still suckling their infants and conceived before weaning their previous offspring, with no significant difference in the time to conception after resumption of mating compared to Virunga gorillas. These findings highlight the impact of ecological conditions on life history patterns, offering insights into the evolution of human-like reproductive strategies.
Virunga National Park: A possible governance model for Green Deal implementation in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) presents a promising governance model for implementing the European Union's Green Deal, which aims for sustainable global development. The study highlights how effective partnerships and robust governance structures can facilitate green transition cooperation, despite challenges such as rapid demographic growth and economic pressures in Africa. It suggests that Virunga's governance could serve as a reliable framework for other regions, emphasizing the need for long-term vision and political commitment to overcome existing weaknesses in development strategies.
Conflicts around Virunga National Park: Grassroots perspectives
People living near Virunga National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Democratic Republic of Congo, identify three key sources of conflict with the park: disputes over boundaries and natural resources, concerns about law enforcement practices by park guards, and dissatisfaction with community engagement and development initiatives. This study, based on long-term field research from 2012 to 2019, captures grassroots perspectives that highlight tensions between conservation goals and local livelihoods, offering critical insights for improving park management strategies.
Fortress tourism: exploring dynamics of tourism, security and peace around the Virunga transboundary conservation area
Tourism around transboundary protected areas (TBPAs), often touted as a 'peace park' model, may inadvertently fuel conflict and militarization. A study of the Virunga Transboundary Conservation Area—spanning the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda—reveals that while high-end gorilla tourism aims to foster cooperation among neighboring states, it instead intensifies intrastate competition and violence. Governments leverage peace tourism rhetoric and revenues to justify militarization, framing neighboring regions as threats to attract visitors while concealing broader security interests. This contradiction challenges the notion of a 'peace dividend' from tourism, raising questions about whose peace is being prioritized. The research, based on twelve months of fieldwork, exposes the paradoxical relationship between conservation-driven tourism and conflict dynamics in shared protected spaces.
Peste des Petits Ruminants at the Wildlife–Livestock Interface in the Northern Albertine Rift and Nile Basin, East Africa
A recent study reveals a significant epidemiological linkage between peste des petits ruminants (PPR) outbreaks in livestock and exposure in wildlife within the northern Albertine Rift and Nile Basin, East Africa. The research identified widespread PPR virus (PPRV) exposure in healthy wildlife from South Sudan and Uganda, with antibodies detected in African buffaloes and Uganda kobs, indicating a spillover of the disease to wildlife populations. Outbreaks of PPR-like syndrome were also recorded in sheep and goats around the Greater Virunga Landscape, suggesting a transboundary spread of PPRV. The study's findings highlight the importance of PPR surveillance on wild artiodactyls for both conservation efforts and global eradication programs.
Reconciling Landscape Fragmentation and Hippopotamuses Population Decrease in Virunga National Park Wetland
A dramatic 96% decline in the hippo population of Virunga National Park (VNP) over less than four decades is linked to severe wetland fragmentation, according to a study analyzing landscape changes from 1990 to 2018. Using remote sensing and landscape metrics—including NDVI and NDWI—researchers mapped seven land cover classes and calculated fragmentation indices, revealing a strong negative correlation between hippo population size and wetland fragmentation levels. The findings underscore the critical role of intact wetlands in supporting biodiversity, with implications for conservation strategies in VNP.
Stimulating Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals and Conservation Action: Predicting Future Land Use/Cover Change in Virunga National Park, Congo
A significant reduction in Virunga National Park's forest and open land areas is projected by 2030, driven primarily by agricultural expansion and urban development. This finding stems from a study that simulated future land cover changes using advanced modeling techniques, including machine learning algorithms and Markov chain analysis. Researchers analyzed satellite images from 2010, 2015, and 2019 to identify key drivers of these changes, such as landscape topography and proximity to human activities. The study provides critical insights for data-driven decision-making, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and offering recommendations to mitigate environmental degradation while supporting sustainable development in the region.
Public Authority and Conservation in Areas of Armed Conflict: Virunga National Park as a ‘State within a State’ in Eastern Congo
Virunga National Park, located in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), exemplifies the complex interplay between conservation efforts and conflict dynamics. Research reveals that while transnational actors have increased their influence over park management, this has not strengthened state authority but instead contributed to a 'state within a state' phenomenon. The militarization of conservation in Virunga, often seen as extending state control, actually fosters extra-state territorialization practices. This challenges conventional notions of state authority and suggests that the intersection of conservation and territorialization should be analyzed through the lens of public authority rather than preconceived state frameworks.
Virunga National Park, the heart of darkness as UNESCO World Heritage
Virunga National Park, Africa's first and most renowned national park, faces an eco-crisis rooted in historical rhetoric. The study identifies problematic narrative patterns—echoing Joseph Conrad’s 'Heart of Darkness'—in both human rights campaigns from the Congo Reform Movement (1900) and animal rights movements led by figures like Dian Fossey in the 1970s. These campaigns, while advocating for justice, share responsibility for perpetuating ecological threats to Virunga's biodiversity, particularly its iconic mountain gorillas. The analysis highlights the documentary Virunga (2014) as a rhetorical model offering an alternative narrative path. This work critiques the long-term political and environmental consequences of such discourses, urging a reevaluation of their impact on conservation efforts.
Beyond Contesting Limits: Land, Access, and Resistance at the Virunga National Park
Nature conservation strategies at Virunga National Park, implemented post-conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), face significant resistance from local populations. While elites employ overt political contestation, peasants utilize 'weapons of the weak,' engaging in covert, everyday resistance through customary land access practices. This multi-dimensional resistance reflects broader conflict dynamics in eastern DRC while embedding them within conservation efforts, which are tightly intertwined with global dynamics. The study highlights how these resistance strategies challenge re-enclosure practices and underscores the complex interplay between local agency and global conservation frameworks.
The ‘green militarisation’ of development aid: the European Commission and the Virunga National Park, DR Congo
Development aid from the European Commission (EC) to Virunga National Park, DR Congo, is found to contribute to 'green militarisation'—a process where conservation efforts are intertwined with paramilitary practices. The EC funds salaries and training for park guards while supporting mixed patrols with the Congolese army, framing violent conflicts around the park as economic rather than political issues. This approach allows policymakers to avoid public scrutiny over the use of aid for (para)military purposes. Unlike prior studies that focus on securitised discourses, this research highlights mundane practices within international organisations that facilitate militarisation in conservation. The findings underscore the need to examine how institutional norms and networks obscure the political dimensions of conservation-related violence.
The counterinsurgency/conservation nexus: guerrilla livelihoods and the dynamics of conflict and violence in the Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Strict conservation enforcement and joint military operations in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, paradoxically intensify armed mobilization by fueling guerrilla livelihoods. These unauthorized activities—such as cultivation, fishing, and logging—often occur under the protection of armed groups, creating a complex interplay between resource exploitation, conflict dynamics, and insurgent resistance. The study demonstrates that traditional conservation strategies may inadvertently exacerbate violence rather than mitigate it, highlighting the need for nuanced approaches that address both ecological preservation and local livelihood security.
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