Publications
Before the Silk Road: The Indus Valley Civilization and the Deep Origins of Eurasian Trade Infrastructure
Archaeological evidence challenges the conventional narrative that the Silk Road (114 BCE) was the origin of Eurasian long-distance trade, revealing instead that the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC, c. 7000–1900 BCE) established and maintained a sophisticated trade network—dubbed the Middle Asian Interaction Sphere (MAIS)—by 2500 BCE. This network, spanning the Iranian Plateau, Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia, predates the Silk Road by two millennia and shares identical geographic corridors. Material proof includes IVC seals, standardized weights, and carnelian beads found across key sites like Ur, Susa, and Shahr-i-Sokhta, alongside genomic data confirming multigenerational IVC communities in Bactria–Margiana (BMAC). The study leverages the Deep Symbolic Systems Model (DSSM) to argue that this network functioned as a distributed symbolic infrastructure, maintaining cognitive coherence without centralized authority. These findings reshape our understanding of Eurasian trade's deep origins.
Bronze Age pottery of the Sistan region: Evidence from Tepe Sadegh
A detailed analysis of Bronze Age pottery from Tepe Sadegh, a satellite settlement linked to Shahr-i Sokhta in southeastern Iran, reveals strong cultural and technological continuity with the urban center. The study, based on 1959 ceramic sherds, identifies standardized buff ware production, predominantly wheel-made, with limited painted or incised decoration, suggesting a high level of craftsmanship. Radiocarbon dating aligns Tepe Sadegh's main occupation with Shahr-i Sokhta periods II and III. The findings highlight the settlement's role as a semi-industrial hub integrating domestic activities while contributing to understanding regional ceramic production and settlement organization in the Helmand Plain during the Bronze Age.
The Woman from Rakhigarhi: Ancient Genome I6113
Ancient DNA analysis of I6113, a 35-year-old woman from the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), reveals that her ancestry is a mixture of ancient Iranian-related populations and Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI), with no evidence of steppe pastoralist or Anatolian farmer influence. This challenges the notion of external demographic replacement in IVC's formation. The study also identifies IVC-cline ancestry in individuals from non-IVC sites, suggesting a distributed human diaspora that maintained symbolic systems across vast distances without central enforcement. The research required extensive skeletal sampling and sequencing efforts to extract viable ancient DNA.
Gli uccelli a Shahr-I Sokhta (Iran):buoni da mangiare, buoni per lavorare
At Shahr-i Sokhta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iran, birds played a significant but underappreciated role during the Bronze Age. While their contribution to diet was minimal—dominated by species like the coot (Fulica atra) and tufted duck (Aythia ferina)—their long bones were crafted into specialized tools, possibly used for decorating pottery. The discovery of these tools, along with production waste, sheds light on ancient manufacturing techniques. Notably, the presence of non-edible cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) bones in urban contexts suggests a rudimentary form of domestication, potentially for fishing in shallow waters. This finding, derived from archaeozoological analyses conducted as part of the MAIPS project, challenges conventional views on the economic significance of birds in ancient societies.
Structural Study and Chemical Composition Analysis of the Historical Adobe from the Surviving Architectural Structures in the Borj-e Afghan Region of Sistan
Historical mudbricks from the Islamic period in Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran, exhibit complex chemical and mineralogical properties that significantly influence their stability. Analysis of samples from the Borj-e Afghan region revealed heterogeneous compositions dominated by clay-siliceous materials, with notable concentrations of calcium carbonate (9-40.5%) and calcium sulfate (0.26-1.4%), alongside phases like quartz, feldspars, calcite, dolomite, muscovite, and montmorillonite. These findings highlight the reactivity of the materials to moisture and salts, necessitating cautious conservation strategies. The study employed X-ray fluorescence, diffraction, titration, and gravimetric analysis to establish a scientific basis for assessing material conditions and guiding restoration efforts in earthen architecture.
Study of compositional and luminescence properties of calcite in lapis lazuli for provenance investigations of archaeological findings
Archaeological findings from Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran) and Tanis (Egypt) suggest that lapis lazuli used in these historical sites likely originated from Afghanistan. This conclusion is based on a study analyzing the compositional and luminescence properties of calcite within 42 reference rocks from four distinct mining regions: Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Siberia, and Myanmar. Using non-destructive Ion Beam Analysis techniques—μ-Particle Induced X-rays Emission (μ-PIXE) and μ-Ion Beam Induced Luminescence (μ-IBIL)—researchers identified unique markers such as high Mg and Mn content in Afghan calcite and high Sr content in Siberian calcite. Principal Component Analysis further distinguished between the provenances, leveraging variability in Mg, Mn, Sr, and Y elements. Notably, luminescence intensity ratios also varied among regions, aiding in provenance discrimination. The study's findings imply that Afghan lapis lazuli was the most probable source for the archaeological materials examined.
Tepe Sadegh, a Bronze Age settlement on the Sistan Plain. Pottery, Chronology, and Interactions
A revised chronological framework for the Bronze Age in Eastern Iran emerges from the first comprehensive analysis of pottery from Tepe Sadegh, a satellite settlement near the UNESCO-listed Shahr-i Sokhta. This study establishes both relative and absolute dating by integrating ceramic typology with radiocarbon-dated charcoal, offering new insights into cultural sequences, urbanization, and socio-cultural complexity on the Sistan Plain. Comparative analysis with other Indo-Iranian Bronze Age sites refines regional chronologies, addressing a critical gap in documentation for Shahr-i Sokhta's satellite settlements.
The Compositional Analysis of Mineral Content and Geo-Chemistry of the Ancient Grey Potsherds from Shahr-I Sokhta, East of Iran
A compositional analysis of ancient grey potsherds from Shahr-i Sokhta, a UNESCO-listed archaeological site in East Iran, reveals that most pottery was locally produced. Using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), researchers identified distinct mineral phases and high-temperature baking signatures, confirming local manufacturing. Notably, copper oxide was used as a glazing agent to achieve the grey coloration, while lead concentrations remained minimal, consistent with Indus Valley pottery traditions. This study provides new insights into the technological sophistication of ancient potters in the region.
A Technical Study on Manufacturing Technique and Corrosion Inspection of Bronze Age Metal Artifacts Excavated from Shahr-e Sukhteh Cemetery
A technical analysis of Bronze Age metal artifacts from Shahr-i Sokhta reveals that arsenic, zinc, and lead were present in the studied samples, suggesting a shared origin. However, high corrosion levels hinder definitive conclusions about their provenance. Microstructural examinations indicated fine grain size, hammering, and annealing processes. Corrosion products such as Cuprite, Malachite, Paratacamite, and Atacamite were identified using X-ray diffraction (XRD). The study employed Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), metallography, and radiography to investigate manufacturing techniques and corrosion processes. These findings contribute to understanding the technological and material practices of ancient Bronze Age civilizations in the region.
Female biased adult sex ratio in the Bronze Age cemetery of Shahr‐i Sokhta (Iran) as an indicator of long distance trade and matrilocality
A female-biased adult sex ratio (SR) of 70.5 at the Bronze Age cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran, suggests a matrilocal society where women lived with their natal families post-marriage. This finding contrasts sharply with broader regional and chronological comparisons, where SR typically favors males (mean range: 112.7–163.1). The study integrated taphonomic, anthropological, archaeological, and ancient DNA data to test this hypothesis. Archaeological evidence indicates women held high social status and that long-distance trade was a key economic activity, while X-chromosome heterozygosity levels further support matrilocality. These indicators collectively imply that Shahr-i Sokhta’s society was organized around matrilineal descent and sustained by extensive trade networks.
Manufacturing architecture, evidence of pottery production from Tappeh Graziani, Sistan, Iran
Archaeological excavations at Tappeh Graziani, a satellite settlement of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Shahr-i Sokhta, reveal that pottery production was a significant economic activity during the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BC. The study identified closed-type kilns with a semi-circular plan, indicating long-term use and suggesting that this site played a crucial role in the regional trade networks of ancient Iran. These findings provide insights into the manufacturing architecture and industrial organization of Hirmand’s civilization area, contributing to our understanding of the social and economic dynamics of this pivotal period in West Asian history.
Tracking of Infectious Diseases in Shahr-i Sokhta (Burnt City) during the Bronze Age (ca. 3200-2200 BCE) through Anemic Signs Observed in Excavated Human Skeletons
A significant discovery from Shahr-i Sokhta, a Bronze Age site in Iran (3200–2200 BCE), reveals that nearly 40% of excavated adult skeletons exhibited signs of anemia, specifically cribra cranii and cribra orbitalia. These findings suggest widespread infectious diseases during childhood when bone tissue was still developing, leaving lasting skeletal markers. The study analyzed 96 adult remains from the MAIPS expeditions (2017–2021), employing paleopathological techniques to identify degenerative anomalies linked to anemia. While preliminary, these results highlight the potential of classical paleopathology in tracking historical diseases, with future molecular analyses expected to provide deeper insights into Bronze Age health conditions.
A Typological Catalogue of the Pottery from Tepe Sadegh
Pottery from Tepe Sadegh, a Bronze Age satellite site of Shahr-i Sokhta in southeast Iran, has been chronologically dated to between 2700 BCE and 2300 BCE, placing it firmly within the second and third periods of the Shahr-i Sokhta period. This finding is based on a comprehensive typological analysis of potsherds, which were classified according to physical characteristics such as clay paste, slip, temper, quality, firing rate, decoration, function, and shape. The study provides a detailed dataset formatted as a CSV file, offering valuable insights into the pottery traditions of the Sistan Plain during this period. This resource serves as a secondary reference for researchers, contributing to the broader understanding of material culture in the region.
Ancient Artifacts: An Investigation about Designers’ Solutions for Tackling Similar Problems in Neighboring Civilizations in a Same Period of Time
A comparative analysis of ancient seals from Shahr-i-Sokhta (Helmand) and Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Valley) reveals that both civilizations prioritized aesthetic, symbolic, and formal design dimensions over functional or engineering considerations during the same historical period. The study employed a two-step research method: first, defining comparative factors based on three product design dimensions—functional, aesthetic, and symbolic—and selecting four seals from each civilization; second, evaluating seal similarities through a Design-by-Analogy (DbA) questionnaire administered to 34 Iranian industrial designers. This approach highlights the shared emphasis on artistic and symbolic expression in ancient design solutions, offering insights into the cultural and creative strategies of neighboring civilizations.
The Investigation of residential architecture in the Bronze Age. Tape Yal (Yalda), Sistan and Baluchestan province, Iran
A Bronze Age village linked to the Hirmand civilization, Tape Yal (Yalda), exhibits a unique residential architecture characterized by mudbrick constructions housing craftsmen workshops and storage rooms. Located 11 kilometers from Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran's Sistan and Baluchestan province, this site offers insights into early urban development during the transition period between Neolithic villages and the emergence of cities around the 4th millennium BC. Excavations revealed that residential buildings were likely integrated with workshops, suggesting a functional organization where craftsmen lived adjacent to their workspaces. This discovery sheds light on the architectural and social dynamics of Bronze Age settlements in the region.
A Double Burial from Shahr-I Sokhta Necropolis (Iran). Bioarcheological Investigations and Non-Invasive Biotechnological Studies on Fragments of Human Remains
Researchers have successfully demonstrated that non-destructive biotechnological techniques can extract valuable scientific data from fragments of human remains, preserving precious archaeological samples. Using a double burial from the Shahr-i Sokhta necropolis in southeastern Iran, the study employed micromolecular analysis via optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy to identify organic compounds like tubulin in subadult femur fragments. This approach, requiring only a few grams of sample, offers a groundbreaking method for interdisciplinary bioarchaeological investigations without compromising material integrity.
Spatial Configuration and Social Organization in Shahr-i-Sokhta Architecture Based on the Space Syntax Approach (Case Study: Building 1 from II and III Periods and Building 20 from IV Period)
A groundbreaking analysis of Shahr-i Sokhta's architecture reveals how spatial configuration and social organization evolved over time, with distinct patterns observed in Building 1 (II and III Periods) and Building 20 (IV Period). The study employs Space Syntax—a method that quantifies movement and connectivity within built environments—to demonstrate that these structures reflect shifting social hierarchies and functional roles. Notably, the findings suggest that earlier periods emphasized centralized control, while later designs allowed for greater decentralization and interaction, potentially indicating changes in governance or community dynamics.
Structural Study of Lapis Lazuli Stones and Beads of the Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan
A structural analysis of lapis lazuli stones and beads from Shahr-i Sokhta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Sistan, Iran, reveals significant insights into the material composition and manufacturing techniques used during ancient times. The study identifies distinct structural characteristics and impurities in the lapis lazuli samples, providing evidence of sophisticated craftsmanship and trade practices dating back to the Bronze Age. Researchers employed advanced analytical methods, including X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), to examine the mineralogical properties and surface morphology of the artifacts. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the cultural significance and technological advancements of ancient civilizations in the region.
To be or not to be local: a provenance study of archaeological ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta, eastern Iran
A provenance analysis of ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta, eastern Iran, reveals that the majority were locally produced using clay sources and kiln wasters from the region. This conclusion is supported by chemical composition data from WDXRF spectroscopy and petrofabric observations, which identified poorly sorted basaltic clasts in the matrix of local clays. However, a distinct group of red and gray wares exhibited different chemistry and fine-grained clay bodies with sorted quartz, indicating a non-local origin. This study provides new insights into the production and trade patterns of ceramics during the period from 3200 to 1800 B.C.E.
Preliminary Results from an Ethno-Archeological study in Sefidkuh Makran (Baluchistan)
A new ethno-archeological study of Sefidkuh Makran (Baluchistan) reveals that the rugged south-eastern Iranian plateau—home to Bronze Age centers like Shahr-i Sokhta and Shahdad—has sustained continuous human settlement from the Neolithic onward, often with minimal cultural disruption. While neighboring regions saw rapid shifts, Makran’s harsh terrain fostered localized, resilient traditions, serving as both a crossroads for Mesopotamian, Sindh Valley, and Iranian cultural exchange and an isolated refuge preserving deep-rooted continuity. The research combines ethnographic observation with archeological survey to map these enduring patterns.
Who Holds the Keys? Identifying Female Administrators at Shahr-i Sokhta
A groundbreaking analysis of seals from Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran, challenges the long-standing assumption that men were primarily responsible for administrative roles in ancient societies. By comparing seals found in necropolises with those used for administrative sealing, researchers identified a striking similarity between seals buried with women and those employed in site administration during the mid-third millennium BC. This suggests that women likely controlled most administrative functions at Shahr-i Sokhta, offering new insights into gender dynamics and economic organization in ancient economies.
New data on non‐human primates from the ancient Near East: The recent discovery of a rhesus macaque burial at Shahr‐i Sokhta (Iran)
A rare and significant archaeological discovery at Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran—a rhesus macaque burial dating to the fourth-to-second millennium BC—reveals new insights into the exploitation of non-human primates in antiquity. The young macaque, approximately 5 years old, was interred using funerary practices similar to those for human infants, accompanied by an unpainted beaker. Pathological analysis of its femurs suggests it was likely kept in captivity, experiencing physical stress prior to death. Native to Central Asia but not Iran, the macaque's provenance may trace back to the Indus valley, hinting at long-distance trade and cultural exchange during this period. This finding underscores the symbolic and luxury value of monkeys in ancient Near Eastern societies, representing one of the earliest documented instances of primates being kept as pets.
Cosmetics and Cosmetology at Shahr-I Sokhta
Analysis of stone flagons from Shahr-i Sokhta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iran, reveals they contained diverse cosmetic mixtures. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) identified mineral phases—both natural and possibly synthetic—that produced green, blue, and white pigments. The study traces the evolution of these vessels over time, noting morphological changes and their geographical spread. A key discovery is the use of perforated stone caps, likely employed to apply cosmetic powders using bird feathers, challenging previous interpretations as lids or spindle whorls. The research also highlights the economic significance of cosmetology in this ancient civilization.
Compositional Analysis of the Pottery Shards of Shahr-I Sokhta, South Eastern Iran
A compositional analysis of pottery shards from Shahr-i Sokhta, one of the oldest settlements in southeastern Iran, reveals that most shards are locally made. Using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to analyze major and trace elements, researchers found that the majority of buff, gray, and red shards share similar chemical signatures, indicating local production. However, a subset of samples (18259-9, 18265-10, 18266-13, 18271-15, and 18273-4) exhibited distinct compositions, suggesting they were imported. This study sheds light on the site's economic and social dynamics during its occupation from approximately 5000 years ago to 1800 BC.
The Role of Birds in the Settlement of Shahr‐i Sokhta (Sistan, Iran) During the 3rd Millennium BC
Archaeological excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iran, reveal that birds played a significant role in the settlement during the 3rd millennium BC. Analysis of 2875 bird remains from 43 species indicates that aquatic birds like the Eurasian coot dominated, while arid-adapted species such as the cinereous vulture and sandgrouse suggest diverse local habitats. Most species were likely hunted for meat, with evidence of eggshell collection, though taphonomic analysis shows Gruiformes and Anseriformes were primarily consumed. The presence of anthropic marks on large bird ulnae hints at bone utilization for non-food purposes. This study provides insight into the environmental conditions and subsistence practices of ancient Shahr-i Sokhta.
Shahr-i Sokhta and the Bronze Production Workshop: A Review
Shahr-i Sokhta, located approximately 55 km southwest of Zabol in southeast Iran, stands out as the most significant Bronze Age site on the eastern Iranian Plateau, spanning 151 hectares. A unique metallurgical center, it is distinguished by the discovery of copper ores, slags, and finished bronze tools, indicating advanced bronze production capabilities. Analysis of 25 metallic slags and 14 artifacts using XRF spectroscopy revealed the presence of arsenic and lead in bronze objects, providing insights into ore sources and workshop provenances. This study highlights Shahr-i Sokhta's role as a key Bronze Age metallurgical hub, offering valuable clues about ancient production techniques and trade networks.
Vegetation Dynamic of Southern Sistan during the Bronze Age: Anthracological Studies at Shahr-i Sokhta
A study of charcoal samples from the Bronze Age site of Shahr-i Sokhta in eastern Iran reveals that the region's vegetation was significantly richer during the third millennium BCE, with a dominance of riparian taxa like tamarisk and willow alongside steppe species such as Chenopodiaceae and saltwort. This suggests favorable environmental conditions at the time, contrasting sharply with today's arid landscape. The research indicates that ancient inhabitants interacted closely with these vegetal formations, likely influencing their structure through anthropogenic factors. By comparing historical charcoal data with modern flora, the study sheds light on both past human-environment interactions and long-term ecological changes in southern Sistan.
Shahr-i Sokhta and the chronology of the Indo-Iranian regions
A 2011 study challenges the established chronology of Shahr-i Sokhta, suggesting its final phases (III and IV) occurred in the late 3rd millennium to early 2nd millennium BCE. This revised dating implies potential interactions between the Helmand sites (Shahr-i Sokhta and Mundigak) and the Indus Civilization. The research evaluates arguments for contemporaneity by examining archaeological sequences from the western Indus Valley and Makran, questioning proposed links between Shahr-i Sokhta and Indus sites.
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