Publications
Impact of Tourism on Indigenous Bote Community of Chitwan National Park
Tourism in Chitwan National Park, while enhancing the economic livelihood of the indigenous Bote community and contributing to biodiversity conservation, fails to deliver significant socio-cultural benefits. Despite the park's strong destination image in Nepal's tourism sector, the Bote community remains largely unable to capitalize on these opportunities. A mixed-method study revealed weak positive impacts on economic and environmental aspects but no socio-cultural changes. This suggests that while tourism can support sustainable conservation efforts and reduce park-people conflicts, its potential for broader community benefit is underutilized.
Zoonotic risks and conservation challenges: Gastrointestinal parasites in wild mammals of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A comprehensive study of gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) in wild mammals of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals a significant prevalence of 85.7% infection rates, with helminths being more common than protozoans. Nematodes were the most prevalent helminth group, followed by trematodes and cestodes, with multiple infections observed more frequently than single infections. The findings highlight a major health concern that could impact species survival and conservation efforts, emphasizing the need for proactive strategies to monitor and address these zoonotic risks in the park.
Ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing the Summer habitat use of Bos gaurus and its conservation threats in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Uncontrolled fire, invasive species, human disturbances, and climate change pose the most significant threats to the gaur population (Bos gaurus) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. This study identified key ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing their summer habitat use, including a preference for dense forests and proximity to roads or firelines while avoiding areas with predators. Researchers used binary logistic regression models to analyze these influences and ranked conservation threats using the relative whole-site threat ranking method. Effective habitat management strategies, such as maintaining firelines, controlling invasive species, and managing grasslands, are recommended to sustain gaur populations and associated herbivores. Future research should expand geographically and temporally to assess long-term habitat suitability.
Multi-stakeholder identification and prioritization of human–tiger conflict reduction measures in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A multi-stakeholder approach identified and prioritized 22 human-tiger conflict reduction measures for Chitwan National Park, Nepal, including compensation payments, tiger-proof fences, and habitat/prey management. These measures were ranked based on input from victims (e.g., farmers), beneficiaries (e.g., tourist guides), and park managers, revealing divergent priorities: victims favored fences, beneficiaries prioritized habitat management, while compensation was universally preferred by managers and often ranked highest across groups. The study underscores the need for tailored policies that balance stakeholder perspectives to effectively mitigate conflicts in tiger conservation areas.
The fishing cat: New insights on distribution in the northern sector of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A recent camera-trapping study in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals that fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus) inhabit areas less than one kilometer from human settlements, suggesting their adaptability to human-dominated landscapes. The research, conducted over 130 camera trap nights in April-May 2021, documented the species near the Rapti riverbed, where seasonal shallow water holes likely facilitate hunting. This finding expands our understanding of fishing cat distribution and behavior in Nepal, a region with significant research gaps on this elusive feline. The study highlights their proximity to human settlements and aquatic habitats, offering new insights for conservation efforts.
Community Development for Bote in Chitwan National Park, Nepal: A Political Ecology of Development Logic of Erasure
Despite the shift from fortress conservation to community-based development in Nepal's protected areas, traditional indigenous livelihoods and knowledge of marginalized groups, such as the Bote people in Chitwan National Park, continue to be erased under state modernization initiatives. An ethnographic study in two buffer zone villages revealed that while community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) promises inclusion, it often perpetuates exclusionary practices, ignoring customary environmental ethics and livelihoods. The research, grounded in political ecology, highlights the need for a conservation approach that respects traditional knowledge and values, challenging the prevailing logic of development in Nepal's protected areas.
Factors influencing the habitat selection of Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and its conservation threats in the Rapti River of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) in the Rapti River of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, exhibit strong habitat preferences for sandy riverbanks with moderate to moderately steep slopes (15–35°), where 39.1% of observed individuals were found basking. This species, a keystone predator, faces significant conservation threats from illegal fishing, sand mining, and waste disposal, which require targeted management strategies. The study employed a generalized linear model (GLM) to analyze habitat selection based on factors like bank substrate, slope, and anthropogenic disturbances, alongside a whole-site ranking method to assess threats. Findings underscore the need for spatio-temporal research to understand resource partitioning with sympatric gharials and enforce stricter regulations against human encroachment.
One stable’s novel approach to mitigating human-elephant conflict near Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A novel strategy to reduce human-elephant conflict near Chitwan National Park, Nepal, was tested by housing a female elephant and her offspring within a community forest area. This approach successfully deterred male elephants from incurring into human-dominated landscapes, as the presence of females eliminated their motivation for such behavior. However, the method had to be abandoned after eight months due to regulatory restrictions imposed by authorities, highlighting both its potential effectiveness and the challenges of implementing long-term solutions in protected areas.
Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in endangered captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) of Chitwan National Park in Nepal
A cross-sectional study of 103 captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, revealed a 47.57% prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites, with nematodes being the most common (61.22%). Key findings include significant differences in parasite prevalence between females (39.80%) and males (7.76%), as well as correlations with age and deworming history. The study used microscopic identification methods to quantify infections, finding that 87.75% of positive cases had mild infections (100-500 eggs per gram). These results highlight the need for targeted interventions to manage parasitic infestations in endangered captive elephants.
Seroprevalence of canine distemper virus (CDV) in the free-roaming dog (Canis familiaris) population surrounding Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A high seroprevalence of canine distemper virus (CDV) at 80% was detected in free-roaming dogs around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, indicating widespread past exposure to the pathogen. The study, conducted on 100 dogs in November 2019, found that adult dogs were significantly more likely to have been exposed to CDV than juveniles, with an odds ratio of 9.00 (95% CI: 1.03-192.75). While sex showed a positive association at the univariable level, this effect was not significant in multivariable analysis. No spatial patterns were observed relative to the park's buffer zone or boundary. The findings underscore the potential for free-roaming dogs to serve as a disease reservoir, posing risks to endangered wildlife such as Bengal tigers. Neutering and vaccination programs are recommended as tools to monitor and mitigate CDV threats in this ecologically significant region.
Temporal and spatial pattern of wildlife attacks on human in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Human fatalities from wildlife attacks in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, are disproportionately caused by elephants and tigers. A study analyzing 12 years of conflict data (2009–2020) found that while rhinos were the most frequently involved species (38% of cases), elephants accounted for an average of 3.75 human deaths annually—nearly 16 times more likely than other species to be lethal (odds ratio = 15.2). Tiger attacks also carried high fatality risk (odds ratio = 8.41). Attacks clustered in winter and near settlements, with a marginal but significant annual increase of 3.97 incidents per year. The findings underscore the need for targeted mitigation strategies to reduce human-wildlife conflict, particularly involving high-risk species like elephants and tigers.
Understanding the perception of buffer zone communities to gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) conservation in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Buffer zone communities around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, exhibit strong familiarity with gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) conservation efforts and are willing to engage in further initiatives. A study involving 153 stakeholders—including park officials, local representatives, fishing communities, hoteliers, and students—revealed that targeted interventions, particularly for river-dependent groups and net sellers, could significantly enhance gharial conservation. Recommendations include community knowledge-sharing programs, school education, and livelihood support to foster active participation in habitat management and species protection.
Demographic and health status of captive elephants around Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A study of captive elephants around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals critical insights into their demographic and health status. The research found 97 captive elephants (16 males, 81 females) in Sauraha, with 17 born to captive mothers. These elephants travel up to 84 km daily, carrying an average of 450 kg, primarily for tourism or conservation tasks like patrolling and transportation. The most prevalent health issue is tuberculosis (27%), followed by parasitic infections, foot problems, and colic. The study highlights the urgent need for effective policies to conserve this endangered species in captivity. Data was collected through field surveys, key-informant interviews, and questionnaires involving 78 mahouts.
Drivers of prohibited natural resource collection in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Household perceptions of invasive plant presence, not actual ecological data, strongly influence prohibited resource collection behaviors in Chitwan National Park. The study combines sociodemographic variables and spatial analysis to reveal how perceptions shape conservation challenges. Researchers used structured interviews, tablet-based data collection, and field surveys to assess collection patterns in community forests and the park. A social-ecological systems approach identified key drivers of illegal resource gathering, offering critical insights for conservation policy that transcend traditional ecological or social frameworks alone.
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus, Gmelin, 1789) abundance in the Rapti River, Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A population of approximately 150 gharials (Gavialis gangeticus), a Critically Endangered crocodilian, was estimated in the Rapti River within Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal, marking one of the largest concentrations of this species in the country. The study employed an N-mixture model to analyze gharial counts across 18 river segments and found that human presence negatively impacted abundance, while deeper river sections positively influenced it. Detection probability was linked to the number of sandbanks. The research highlights the Rapti River's ecological significance for gharials and recommends designating a 'no extraction zone' to mitigate threats like fishing and material extraction. With an overall occupancy rate of 84%, this study underscores the vulnerability of gharial populations in central Nepal, emphasizing the need for targeted conservation efforts.
Habitat occupancy of sloth bear Melursus ursinus in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) occupy approximately 69% of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, with their presence strongly linked to rugged, undisturbed habitats rich in termites and fruits. The study used sign surveys across 45 grids and 200-meter trail segments, analyzing detection/non-detection data while accounting for imperfect detectability. Environmental factors like terrain and food availability emerged as critical determinants of habitat occupancy, highlighting the species' elusive yet widespread distribution. These findings underscore the need for conservation strategies that prioritize undisturbed ecosystems to protect this endangered mammal.
Habitat suitability modelling of Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791) (Mammalia: Carnivora) in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A study on the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, identifies critical habitat suitability factors for the species. Using habitat suitability modeling, researchers found that areas with dense vegetation, proximity to water sources, and low human disturbance are most favorable for sloth bears. The model incorporated environmental variables such as land cover, elevation, and distance from human settlements to predict suitable habitats. This research provides valuable insights for conservation efforts, highlighting the importance of preserving natural landscapes to support sloth bear populations in the region.
The composition of mixed-species flocks of birds in and around Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A first-of-its-kind study on mixed-species bird flocks (MSFs) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals that drongos and minivets act as nuclear species—leading these flocks despite their aggressive tendencies. Analyzing 222 MSF records comprising 100 species and 6,097 individuals, researchers found a dominance of canopy-dwelling, non-terrestrial insectivores, deviating from global patterns where understory gregarious species typically lead. Drongos, while known to manipulate other flock members, serve as sentinel species, providing critical predation risk alerts. This suggests that MSFs led by sentinels may be a widespread phenomenon in Asia, mirroring Neotropical patterns. The study highlights the ecological role of drongos in MSF dynamics and contributes to the understanding of avian social behavior in South Asian ecosystems.
Waterfowl Population Trends in the Major Rivers of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A decade-long study (2010–2019) of waterfowl populations along the Rapti and Narayani Rivers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals significant population trends among 18 species, with six showing increasing trends. The Ruddy Shelduck dominated the population at 80%, while the Bar-Headed Goose, Gadwall, Mallard, and Common Teal exhibited strong growth rates of +18.96% to +12.44%. Conversely, the Lesser Whistling Duck and Northern Pintail faced steep declines (-12.85% and -10.80%, respectively). The study also highlights that these rivers support critical populations of waterfowl in the South Asian Flyway, meeting Ramsar Criteria 6 for international conservation significance. This research provides a vital baseline for managing and conserving waterfowl habitats in Chitwan National Park, where continuous data has been lacking.
Ecotourism and Its Impact on Local Community in Sauraha, Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Ecotourism in Sauraha, Nepal's Chitwan National Park (CNP), predominantly benefits local communities economically and socio-culturally while posing environmental challenges. A study revealed that 93% of tourists visit for jungle safaris, highlighting its primary appeal. While ecotourism generates new employment opportunities and conserves local culture, it also introduces noise and visual pollution. The research employed participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools like semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews to assess perceptions. Index of Relative Ranking and Perception Availability were used to analyze community responses, showing overwhelming positive economic and socio-cultural impacts but mixed views on environmental effects.
Ecotourism’s Impact on Ethnic Groups and Households near Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Ecotourism near Chitwan National Park, Nepal, primarily benefits socioeconomically advantaged households while leaving disadvantaged groups, particularly those without land or facilities, excluded from opportunities. Despite this disparity, locals—including those engaging in illegal forest product extraction—recognize ecotourism's positive impacts on employment, social development, and conservation. The study, which surveyed 145 households in two buffer zone villages using structured questionnaires, highlights policy gaps that disproportionately favor certain groups. Researchers recommend restructuring policies to ensure equitable access to ecotourism benefits for all ethnic groups and economic levels, emphasizing the need to protect vulnerable communities living near national parks.
Evidence of bhellar (Trewia nudiflora) seed dispersal by chital (Axis axis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Researchers have uncovered evidence that chital (Axis axis), the most abundant deer species in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, play a significant role in the seed dispersal of bhellar or trewia (Trewia nudiflora). Observations at the Gharial Conservation and Breeding Center revealed chital regurgitating trewia seeds, suggesting an active role in their dispersal. This finding highlights a potential mutualistic relationship between the tree species and the deer, which could have implications for forest regeneration in riverine ecosystems. The study calls for further research to understand the success of seed germination and the broader dynamics of this interaction.
Human-elephant conflict in the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, escalated significantly between 2013 and 2017, with 543 incidents reported, including three human fatalities and two injuries. Crop damage was the most frequent type of HEC, peaking during the post-monsoon season, while property damage surged in winter. A strong negative correlation emerged between HEC frequency and proximity to the park's forest edge, indicating that conflicts intensify closer to protected areas. Despite rising tensions, 77% of residents surveyed maintained a positive attitude toward elephant conservation, viewing them as national treasures. The study analyzed spatial and temporal patterns using park data and surveys from 390 residents across 13 buffer zone user committees (BZUCs), revealing critical insights for conflict mitigation in UNESCO-listed sites.
Local perceptions of forest rules and interactions between rules, ecotourism, and human-wildlife conflicts: Evidence from Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A study on Chitwan National Park, Nepal, reveals that ecotourism, while intended to mitigate conservation impacts, has paradoxically increased restrictions on forest resource access for local communities, affecting both those near and far from the park equally. The research, based on household surveys and interviews in two buffer zone villages, highlights a tension between conservation rules and livelihoods, with no clear reduction in human-wildlife conflicts despite ecotourism's introduction. Recommendations include targeted livelihood support for disadvantaged groups and policy adjustments to enhance compliance and local engagement in conservation efforts.
Nesting Ecology of Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus): Implications from In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation Programs in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A long-term study on the nesting ecology of critically endangered Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, revealed significant insights into their reproductive behavior and conservation implications. The research, spanning 17 years from 2001 to 2017, identified a consistent nesting window with a mean oviposition date of March 31, and hatching occurring around June 15 after an average incubation period of 76 days. Notably, the study found that while clutch size and infertile egg proportions were higher in the Narayani River compared to the Rapti River, hatching success was significantly greater in the Rapti River. Additionally, nests in the Narayani River were positioned farther from the water's edge, likely as an adaptation to prevent flooding. This comprehensive study provides critical data for designing and optimizing both in situ and ex situ conservation programs for Gharials in Nepal.
Spatial Concentrations of Wildlife Attacks on Humans in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Human-wildlife conflicts in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, show strong spatial correlations between attack densities of sloth bears and leopards (r ≈ 0.8), as well as among other species except elephants and wild boars at higher victim densities (>1 victim/4 km²). The study suggests dividing buffer zones into concentric rings to prioritize risk reduction based on human land use, potentially empowering local communities in conservation efforts. Researchers analyzed attack data across different land uses—such as nurseries, orchards, and cultivated areas—to identify high-risk zones and propose targeted mitigation strategies.
Spatio-temporal patterns of wildlife attacks on humans in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Wildlife attacks on humans in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, are highly concentrated near forest boundaries, with 77% of incidents occurring within one kilometer. Rhinos were responsible for nearly half (43.8%) of the annual average of 38.8 attacks between 2014 and 2018, followed by wild boars, tigers, sloth bears, elephants, and crocodiles. Attacks significantly decreased with distance from the forest, dropping to 7% beyond two kilometers. The study suggests community-level fisheries development as a strategy to reduce conflicts while emphasizing the need for wildlife-friendly infrastructure to prevent harm to animals.
Contribution of Buffer Zone Programs to Reduce Human-Wildlife Impacts: the Case of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Buffer zone programs around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, significantly reduce human-wildlife conflicts when funds are directed toward direct interventions for prevention and mitigation. A study found that only 13.7% of the buffer zone budget was allocated to such measures, yet this small investment inversely correlated with conflict levels. While residents generally held positive attitudes toward wildlife conservation and were aware of the programs, they expressed dissatisfaction with current practices. The research highlights the need for prioritizing direct intervention funds in buffer zones to effectively minimize human-wildlife impacts, offering a practical approach for similar conservation efforts worldwide.
Livestock depredation by leopards around Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A decade-long analysis of leopard livestock depredation around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, revealed that goats were disproportionately targeted (87.3% of cases), leading to significant economic losses and compensation payments totaling $24,621 over ten years. Despite a general decline in incidents from 2007–2016, no clear correlation was found between depredation and factors such as human or livestock population density, forest area, or environmental variables like rainfall or temperature. Depredation hotspots were identified through a conflict map, highlighting clustering in specific buffer zone areas. The study suggests that improved husbandry practices, livestock insurance schemes, and conservation education could mitigate conflicts and enhance public support for leopard conservation.
Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A study analyzing wildlife attacks on humans and economic losses in Chitwan National Park, Nepal (1998–2016) found that while rhinos and elephants caused the most human-wildlife conflicts during full moon periods, increasing wildlife populations did not correlate with rising incidents. Underprivileged ethnic communities were disproportionately affected, and carnivores like tigers and leopards accounted for over 90% of livestock depredation, primarily targeting medium-sized animals near forest edges. Decreases in livestock holdings and conflict mitigation measures (e.g., fences) helped control incidents, though challenges persisted. The research suggests strengthening fencing, predator-proof corrals, and community education to reduce conflicts effectively.
When, where and whom: assessing wildlife attacks on people in Chitwan National Park, Nepal
A significant portion of wildlife attacks on people in and around Chitwan National Park, Nepal, occurs outside the protected area, with 89% of incidents recorded between 2003 and 2013 happening beyond its boundaries. These attacks are unevenly distributed across seasons and months, predominantly occurring during the day, particularly in the morning. Rhinos (38%), tigers (21%), sloth bears (18%), elephants (9%), and wild boar (8%) were the primary perpetrators. Victims were mostly male, engaged in resource collection or farming, and lacked knowledge of animal behavior. The study used data from stakeholders, field observations, and surveys to identify key correlates such as site, season, time, activity, gender, and awareness. Mitigation strategies are recommended, including habitat management within the Park and raising public awareness about wildlife behavior, along with forming a participatory emergency rescue team for high-risk areas.
Invasive mikania in Chitwan National Park, Nepal: the threat to the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and factors driving the invasion
Invasive mikania (Mikania micrantha) poses a significant threat to the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. The study found that 44% of surveyed habitats are infested with mikania, with nearly 15% exhibiting high infestation levels (>50% coverage). Riverine forests, tall grasslands, and wetlands—habitats critical for rhinoceros survival—show the highest densities of this invasive plant. Anthropogenic activities, particularly annual grassland burning (25–50% of the park's area) and natural resource collection by local communities, are key drivers of mikania spread. The research highlights the urgent need for management strategies to control burning, mitigate spread, and promote sustainable resource use practices among local communities.
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