Erbil Citadel

World Heritage Research

Discover scientific research and academic studies that deepen our understanding of Erbil Citadel from its history and significance to its conservation, management, and contemporary challenges.

• Analysis of vernacular dwellings in Iraq: A comparative study of Erbil citadel and old Akre

  Vernacular architecture in Erbil Citadel and Old Akre, two historic Iraqi settlements, demonstrates context-sensitive design principles that address climatic, topographical, and social factors while maintaining cultural continuity. A comparative analysis reveals how both sites efficiently use locally available resources—such as mud brick and timber in Erbil or stone and lime in Old Akre—to achieve thermal comfort, privacy, and community integration. Erbil’s compact, inward-oriented courtyard houses contrast with Old Akre’s terraced layout, adapted to mountainous terrain, yet both showcase sustainable design strategies that remain relevant for contemporary urban development. This study highlights the potential of traditional practices as a framework for climate-responsive and culturally integrated architecture.

  DHUOKI, R. M. S. B., & Çağnan, Ç. (2025). Analysis of vernacular dwellings in Iraq: A comparative study of Erbil citadel and old Akre. Yakın Mimarlık Dergisi, 9(2), 131–155. https://doi.org/10.32955/neujna2025921089

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• The Effect of Implemented Heritage Building Projects On Outstanding Universal Value: The Case of Erbil Citadel

  Rehabilitation projects at Erbil Citadel have demonstrated a statistically significant positive impact on its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), enhancing both authenticity and integrity. This finding underscores the potential for conservation efforts, when aligned with international standards, to not only preserve but also strengthen OUV. The study employed a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative expert evaluations with qualitative content analysis, guided by the Nara Grid and UNESCO operational guidelines. A virtual tour of three distinct rehabilitation projects served as the basis for structured questionnaires, revealing that both tangible and intangible aspects must be addressed collaboratively to maintain OUV. This research highlights the complementary nature of authenticity and integrity in heritage preservation.

  Qadir, K., & Mahmood, F. (2025). The Effect of Implemented Heritage Building Projects On Outstanding Universal Value: The Case of Erbil Citadel. Sulaimani Journal for Engineering Sciences, 12(1), 74–103. https://doi.org/10.17656/sjes.102005

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• Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, The Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions

  Residents of Erbil recognize the Citadel's cultural significance, positioning it as a strong potential brand for the city. A mixed-method survey involving 440 participants revealed that local perceptions play a crucial role in shaping urban identity and tourism strategies. The study highlights the importance of leveraging historical assets like the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel to enhance city branding, offering insights into how community awareness can drive sustainable urban development.

  Ali, H. S., & Khayat, M. A. B. (2024). Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, The Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202407.2569.v1

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• Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, the Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions

  Residents of Erbil, Iraq, overwhelmingly recognize the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel as a defining symbol of their city's cultural and historical identity. A study involving 440 participants found that local awareness of the Citadel's significance positively correlates with its perceived value as a brand for urban development and tourism. The research, using mixed-method surveys analyzed via SPSS, underscores the importance of cultural education in leveraging heritage sites to strengthen city branding. These findings offer actionable insights for policymakers aiming to harness Erbil’s historical assets for international recognition.

  Ali, H. S., & Khayat, M. (2024). Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, the Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions. Sustainability, 16(19), 8529. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198529

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• Evaluating the Viability of the Erbil Citadel Houses for Adaptive Reuse Process

  A study on the Erbil Citadel Houses identifies key aspects of adaptive reuse as a sustainable strategy for historic structures, addressing a significant research gap in conflict-affected Middle Eastern regions. The research evaluates the viability of adaptive reuse by analyzing its challenges and opportunities, aiming to establish best practices that can guide sustainable development efforts. This approach offers potential solutions for preserving historical sites while promoting economic and social resilience.

  Sulaiman Goriel, W. A., Zoltán, E., & Molnár, T. (2024). Evaluating the Viability of the Erbil Citadel Houses for Adaptive Reuse Process. YBL Journal of Built Environment, 9(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.2478/jbe-2024-0007

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• Assessing the Soundscape Characteristics of Historical Urban Environments: An Analysis of the Historical Erbil Citadel and Its Environments

  Research reveals that the soundscape of historical urban environments, such as Erbil Citadel, plays a pivotal role in shaping the perception and identity of these spaces. The study identified distinct sound sources contributing to the city's audio-visual experience, which are at risk during renewal processes. By analyzing Sound Pressure Levels (SPL) and applying Schafer’s sound characteristics, the research pinpointed sounds critical to preserving Erbil’s cultural identity. A soundwalk method was employed to map current acoustic conditions, offering actionable insights for safeguarding the citadel's unique auditory heritage.

  Jaff, A. A. M., Erçin, Ç., & Onur, Z. (2023). Assessing the Soundscape Characteristics of Historical Urban Environments: An Analysis of the Historical Erbil Citadel and Its Environments. Buildings, 13(12), 3091. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13123091

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• Sustainability-based hybridization interventions, the urban fabric of Erbil Citadel - Iraq – As a case study

  Sustainable hybridization interventions can effectively balance tradition and modernity within historical urban fabrics, as demonstrated by the Erbil Citadel in Iraq. This study reveals that such interventions—measured through open spaces, movement axes, and functional hybridization—enhance sustainability while preserving cultural integrity. By analyzing restoration efforts using computer-aided planning tools, researchers identified a holistic model for hybridization that aligns with ancient urban structures. The findings suggest that successful hybridization depends on factors ensuring consistency with historical fabric and contemporary needs, offering a scalable approach to urban conservation worldwide.

  Haseeb, Q. S., Yunus, S. M., & Aziz, A. I. (2023). Sustainability-based hybridization interventions, the urban fabric of Erbil Citadel - Iraq – As a case study. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 75, 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.04.064

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• The Erbil Citadel Ceramic Corpus: A preliminary Analysis of the Main Productions and Their Relationships with Archaeological Stratigraphy

  A preliminary analysis of the ceramic corpus from the Erbil Citadel, conducted collaboratively by the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) and the Italian Archaeological Mission in Iraqi Kurdistan (MAIKI), reveals distinct production patterns that correlate with the site's archaeological stratigraphy. The study, based on ceramics excavated between 2013 and 2015, identifies key ceramic types and their chronological relationships, offering new insights into the Citadel's occupational history. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the material culture and stratigraphic layers of one of Iraq's most significant UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

  Colliva, L., & Mancini, S. (2023). The Erbil Citadel Ceramic Corpus: A preliminary Analysis of the Main Productions and Their Relationships with Archaeological Stratigraphy. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient near East, 931–944. https://doi.org/10.13173/9783447119030.931

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• role of urban preservation to achieve sustainable urban development – Preserving Erbil Citadel as case study

  Urban preservation plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable urban development, as demonstrated by the case study of Erbil Citadel. The research highlights that integrating heritage conservation with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can prevent the loss of cultural assets and revitalize historical buildings within urban contexts. Specifically, the study emphasizes the importance of resettling original inhabitants to ensure the citadel's integration into the surrounding urban fabric rather than its conversion into a museum. This approach serves as a model for balancing traditional human life with modern sustainable development principles, contributing to the global preservation of cultural heritage while addressing urban sustainability challenges.

  Al Ani, M. Q. A. G. (2022). role of urban preservation to achieve sustainable urban development – Preserving Erbil Citadel as case study. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Administratio Locorum, 21(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.31648/aspal.7037

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• A virtual & an augmented reality application of the Rashid Agha's diwakhana in the citadel of erbil using 360° 3D Lidar

  A groundbreaking application of 360° 3D LiDAR technology has enabled the non-intrusive documentation and virtual reconstruction of Rashid Agha's diwakhana within Erbil Citadel. This method circumvents the need for physical intervention, which could otherwise risk damage to these fragile structures. The study demonstrates how LiDAR-derived point clouds can be used to create immersive augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) experiences, facilitating both research and public engagement without compromising archaeological integrity. By leveraging data collected from ground-based or aerial platforms, the approach offers a precise, scalable solution for preserving and exploring historical monuments in their original state.

  Agha, R. A. A., & Monnet, W. (2019). A virtual & an augmented reality application of the Rashid Agha’s diwakhana in the citadel of erbil using 360° 3D Lidar. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Data Science, E-Learning and Information Systems, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1145/3368691.3368723

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• The impact of social classes on the residential heritage Buildings Erbil Citadel as a case study

  A study on the Erbil Citadel reveals that social class divisions significantly influenced the design of residential buildings, supporting the hypothesis that class distinctions shape architectural heritage. The research, employing a historical and analytical approach, examined three distinct regions within the citadel—Saray, Takiya, and Topkhana—reflecting Ottoman Empire social stratification until 1918. Findings indicate that economic, professional, lifestyle, and cultural factors underpinning class differences translated into architectural variations in residential structures. The study's two-part methodology first explored theoretical aspects of social layering and historical context, followed by an analysis of how these dynamics manifested in the citadel's design. This work contributes to understanding the interplay between societal structures and tangible heritage preservation.

  Salih, C., Seed, B., & Ali, Assist. Prof. Dr. A. (2019). The impact of social classes on the residential heritage Buildings Erbil Citadel as a case study. Sulaimani Journal for Engineering Sciences, 6(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.17656/sjes.10077

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• Study of Erbil Al-Qala citadel time changes by comparison of historical and contemporary image data

  A comparative analysis of historical and contemporary image data reveals significant structural changes within the Erbil Citadel particularly highlighting the destruction of numerous objects during the latter half of the 20th century. The study leverages Bradford's 1951 stereoscopic aerial photographs and modern very high-resolution (VHR) satellite imagery from Ikonos (2003), QuickBird (2005), and Pleiades (2014) to create digital models and orthophotos. By processing these datasets using Agisoft PhotoScan software, researchers identified missing or altered structures, providing a detailed mapping of the citadel's historical evolution. This approach underscores the potential of long-term image data analysis in documenting and preserving cultural heritage sites.

  Housarová, E., Pavelka, K., & Šedina, J. (2018). Study of Erbil Al-Qala citadel time changes by comparison of historical and contemporary image data. European Journal of Remote Sensing, 52(sup1), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/22797254.2018.1531683

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• The Role of Erbil Citadel Precinct in Developing the City Tourism Sector

  Erbil Citadel, one of the oldest preserved cities and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, faces significant challenges that hinder its potential as a tourism hub. Key issues include poor connectivity between the citadel and its surrounding precinct, visual inconsistencies, and negative activities that deter both tourists and locals. The study identifies these deficiencies through land use classification via direct survey and GIS mapping, followed by problem adjustment based on local and international standards. It proposes creative strategies to revitalize the urban fabric, foster local-global interactions, and attract foreign investment in tourism. This approach aims to transform Erbil Citadel into a dynamic cultural and economic asset, addressing both functional and accessibility gaps while aligning with global best practices.

  Al-Dujaili, Dr. S., & Amen, Dr. M. (2018). The Role of Erbil Citadel Precinct in Developing the City Tourism Sector. Sulaimani Journal for Engineering Sciences, 5(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.17656/sjes.10068

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• Erbil Citadel restoration: some thoughts on earth-built constructions exposed to seismic action

  Restoration efforts at Erbil Citadel, a 7,000-year-old UNESCO World Heritage Site, reveal critical insights into the seismic performance of traditional earthen constructions. The study assessed eight buildings on the 32-meter-high artificial mound, highlighting their vulnerability to seismic action despite their historical significance and cultural value. Using advanced structural analysis, researchers identified key weaknesses in these ochre-brick courtyard houses, providing data-driven recommendations for sustainable preservation. These findings underscore the need for innovative restoration techniques that balance historical integrity with modern seismic safety standards.

  Martin-Caro, J. A., & Paniagua, I. (2015). Erbil Citadel restoration: some thoughts on earth-built constructions exposed to seismic action. Sustainable Development, 583–593. https://doi.org/10.2495/sd150511

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