Old City of Acre

World Heritage Research

Discover scientific research and academic studies that deepen our understanding of Old City of Acre from its history and significance to its conservation, management, and contemporary challenges.

• The Outer Walls of Frankish Acre1

  A long-standing historical debate on the location of Frankish Acre's outer walls has been addressed through a critical examination of 150 years of scholarly maps. The study reveals that while earlier scholars like Rey, Makhouly and Johns, and Müller-Wiener proposed the northernmost tip of the wall was significantly farther north than the current Turkish-built wall (750 m away), others like Alderson and Jacoby suggested it was much closer (500–550 m). Kesten's 1962 correspondence map, though not explicitly marking Montmusard’s outer wall, implied its inner wall aligned with Alderson’s. Benvenisti’s later mapping suggested the outer wall extended to Rey et al.’s proposed point on the seashore. This analysis synthesizes conflicting hypotheses, offering a refined understanding of Frankish Acre's urban layout and its northern suburb, Montmusard.

  Kedar, B. Z. (2024). The Outer Walls of Frankish Acre1. Franks, Muslims and Oriental Christians in the Latin Levant, XVII–X157. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003553953-17

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• The Fall of Acre and the Salvation of Sodom. The use of peccatis exigentibus in response to the loss of Acre in 1291.

  The fall of Acre in 1291, marking the end of the Crusades in the eastern Mediterranean, posed a theological challenge for medieval audiences. This study reveals that the concept of 'peccatis exigentibus'—a discourse attributing divine punishment to sins—was employed to explain such defeats. The research traces this argument from its biblical roots (Genesis 18:17–32) through Crusader historiography, highlighting its evolution and application post-1291. Two key texts were analyzed for their divergent interpretations of the same passage, demonstrating how 'peccatis exigentibus' was adapted to reconcile the loss of Acre with Christian doctrine.

  Pretzer, C. (2024). The Fall of Acre and the Salvation of Sodom. The use of peccatis exigentibus in response to the loss of Acre in 1291. Open Research Europe, 4, 21. https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.16808.1

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• The confraternity and Chapel of St Edward the Confessor in Acre (1271/1272–1291)

  Two newly edited and translated French letters from the English military confraternity of St Edward the Confessor in Acre reveal critical insights into the final decade of Frankish rule over the city. Dated between 1282/3 and 1286, these letters document the confraternity's plea to King Edward I for assistance in securing a priest for their chapel, which was built during his crusade in 1271–1272. The chapel, initially part of the abbey of St Mary in Jehoshaphat, faced challenges due to the abbey's impoverishment and partial control by the Hospitallers. The letters also highlight the decline of the Friars of the Sack, the order that had previously served the chapel, leaving it without a functioning priest. This rare correspondence provides a vivid snapshot of Acre's political and religious landscape during its twilight as a Frankish stronghold.

  Pringle, D. (2023). The confraternity and Chapel of St Edward the Confessor in Acre (1271/1272–1291). Exploring Outremer Volume I, 44–58. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003146957-4

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• ‘Akko, the Old City, the Genoese Quarter

  A trial excavation in the Old City of Acre, conducted in April–May 2018, uncovered significant archaeological insights prior to the construction of the Ramchal Synagogue Visitors' Center. The excavation, led by researchers from the Israel Antiquities Authority and the University of Genoa, revealed new evidence about the Genoese Quarter's historical layers. Key findings included detailed digital documentation, numismatic analysis, and metal artifact studies, which shed light on the site's complex stratigraphy and cultural significance. This study contributes to the understanding of Acre's layered history, particularly its medieval and early modern periods.

  Stern, E., Stern, E. J., & Benente, F. (2023). ’Akko, the Old City, the Genoese Quarter. Hadashot Arkheologiyot - Excavations and Surveys in Israel. https://doi.org/10.69704/jhaesi.116.2004.26292

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• Refining Late-Holocene environmental changes of the Akko coastal plain and its impacts on the settlement and anchorage patterns of Tel Akko (Israel)

  A new palaeogeographical reconstruction of the Akko coastal plain reveals that environmental changes, particularly sedimentary input and coastal progradation, significantly influenced the anchorage and settlement patterns at Tel Akko. The study found that the main anchorage areas shifted from the southern part of the tell during the 2nd Millennium BCE to the western area in the late-1st Millennium BCE (Phoenician-Persian period). This shift was likely a response to changing coastal dynamics, which also influenced settlement patterns noted in archaeological excavations. The research combines sedimentological and faunal analyses of radiocarbon-dated cores with ground-penetrating radar investigations and ceramic sherd identification to provide an up-to-date understanding of how the local population adapted to environmental pressures over time.

  Giaime, M., Artzy, M., Jol, H. M., Salmon, Y., López, G. I., & Abu Hamid, A. (2022). Refining Late-Holocene environmental changes of the Akko coastal plain and its impacts on the settlement and anchorage patterns of Tel Akko (Israel). Marine Geology, 447, 106778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106778

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• Resisting and Remaking Heritage Work: An Archaeology of the Surface in Acre's Old City

  Acre's Old City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2001, reveals how Palestinian residents selectively appropriate heritage narratives to challenge state-led tourism development. Through photographic surface surveys, researchers document local practices—such as bread offerings for animals and fishermen—that reflect aesthetic values while subverting dominant heritage discourses. This study highlights an alternative theorization of heritage that balances historical significance with livability, offering a counter-narrative to Israel's international tourist promotion efforts.

  Taylor, E. (2022). 9 Resisting and Remaking Heritage Work: An Archaeology of the Surface in Acre’s Old City. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, 33(1), 135–151. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/apaa.12162

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• Some linguistic features of the dialect of Acre and their possible explanation by the history of the city

  Acre Arabic, spoken by locals in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Acre, exhibits unique linguistic features that reflect the city's complex history. Unlike Palestinian Arabic, some characteristics align with Syrian and Egyptian dialects, suggesting historical influences from these regions. The study, based on interviews conducted in 2016–17, particularly with older residents, identifies distinctive phonological, morphological, and syntactical traits. These findings offer insights into Acre's linguistic evolution, shaped by its strategic location and cultural exchanges over centuries.

  Zuʾbi, A. (2023). Some linguistic features of the dialect of Acre and their possible explanation by the history of the city. Journal of Semitic Studies, 68(2), 713–758. https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/fgac029

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