Publications
Pergamon Antik Kenti Ziyaretçi Deneyimlerini Üzerine Bir Araştırma
Pergamon Antik Kenti, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bergama, Izmir, stands out as a significant cultural and tourist destination due to its rich multi-layered history spanning Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. A study analyzing 334 visitor reviews from TripAdvisor revealed that the site offers an impactful experience through its historical richness and scenic beauty, underscoring its importance in tourism. The research, employing MAXQDA for qualitative data analysis, identified themes of positive and negative experiences while avoiding bias, providing a comprehensive framework to understand visitor perceptions and expectations.
Agroclimatic landscapes of pergamon: Modeling agricultural suitability of an ancient city and its environs
Agricultural suitability in Pergamon's environs varied significantly over time, with the western Bakırçay plain consistently supporting crop cultivation due to stable climatic conditions. In contrast, the eastern plain and foothills showed greater variability, necessitating adaptive land management strategies. This study challenges the notion of a uniform 'Roman Climate Optimum,' highlighting local agroclimatic nuances that influenced ancient societies' economic dependencies on trade networks. Researchers used paleoclimate simulations integrated with the EcoCrop niche model to reconstruct spatio-temporal changes in agricultural potential from 400 BCE to 400 CE, validated by pollen-based reconstructions.
Alluvial fan development mirrors settlement dynamics in the peri-urban surroundings of ancient Pergamon, western Türkiye
Intensified human activities during the Roman Imperial period in the peri-urban surroundings of ancient Pergamon triggered significant sediment dynamics, leading to the burial of the Bakırçay alluvial plain by the prograding Araplı alluvial fan. This study identifies distinct phases of landscape development using sediment cores from the Araplı alluvial fan, analyzed through macroscopic and geochemical methods alongside radiocarbon dating. The research reveals that while the Early Holocene period was characterized by a floodplain with seasonal water bodies, human activities during the Roman Imperial period likely increased soil erosion, altering sediment deposition patterns more prominently in peri-urban areas compared to rural regions. This finding underscores the local variability of sediment dynamics in response to historical transformations, mirroring modern-day land degradation trends.
Deep Mapping the Asklepieion of Pergamon: Charting the Path Through Challenges, Choices, and Solutions
Deep mapping emerges as a transformative approach for understanding the complex, multi-layered cultural landscapes of ancient sacred sites. This study applies deep mapping to the Asklepieion of Pergamon, a sanctuary with over 700 years of history, by integrating archaeological, epigraphic, and literary data into GIS layers (shapefiles). The research highlights the challenges and choices in structuring this diverse data for spatial analysis while also presenting it via story maps as a public outreach tool. By triangulating space with divine authority and human narratives, deep mapping offers unprecedented insights into the dynamics of ancient sacred landscapes, demonstrating its potential to enrich both academic research and public engagement.
Pergamon As It Once Was: A Virtual Journey into Ancient City and an Immersive Experience with AI Integration
A groundbreaking virtual reconstruction of ancient Pergamon leverages AI, VR, and photorealistic 3D modeling to revive the city's Hellenistic and Roman-era landscape with unprecedented historical accuracy. Using architectural plans from AutoCAD®, detailed 3D models of landmarks like the Temple of Athena and Altar of Zeus were crafted in 3ds Max® and Blender® before being deployed in Unreal Engine® with realistic terrain, lighting, and textures. AI-driven avatars, created with Character Creator® and animated via iClone®, serve as narrative guides, delivering context-sensitive interpretive content during immersive user experiences. This integration of archaeological data, digital media, and conversational AI (via Convai®) transforms cultural heritage interpretation, offering both educational and experiential value. The study demonstrates how emerging technologies can reconstruct not only architectural forms but also the social dynamics of ancient urbanism.
Understanding geomorphodynamics in the Pergamon micro-region from a socio-ecological perspective
A novel socio-ecological model reveals how geomorphodynamics shaped the ancient metropolis of Pergamon and its surrounding micro-region, offering new insights into human-environment interactions. By integrating data from physical geography, archaeology, building archaeology, and ancient history, researchers demonstrated that urban sprawl influenced erosion and deposition patterns, while also highlighting the role of infrastructure like terraces and riverbank stabilization in social metabolism. This interdisciplinary approach not only advances understanding of Pergamon's cultural landscape but also underscores its significance as a 'guiding fossil' of urban culture in antiquity.
Capacity Building and Participation in Conserving the Multi-Layered Cultural Heritage of Bergama
A novel capacity-building framework has been developed to enhance the conservation of Bergama's (Pergamon) multi-layered cultural heritage. This approach integrates community involvement, NGO collaboration, and stakeholder engagement, drawing from the UNDP's general capacity-building model. Key actors were identified through keyword scanning, surveys, interviews, and frequency analysis, alongside a tailored capacity-building scale for experts. The research evaluates existing and targeted capacities while addressing heritage-community dynamics in Bergama's urban core. This holistic method aims to strengthen institutional structures and foster sustainable conservation practices, offering a replicable model for other heritage sites.
Holocene geomorphodynamics of a rural catchment in the Pergamon micro-region (eastern Mediterranean)
A new study reveals that the Pergamon micro-region in western Türkiye experienced distinct phases of accelerated geomorphodynamics during the Holocene, shaped by both local human activities and regional climate fluctuations. Analysis of five sediment profiles from the Deliktaş catchment's alluvial fan, radiocarbon-dated to cover the entire Holocene period, identified seven sediment dynamic cycles. These cycles show that while Mid-Holocene aridization and rapid climate changes played a significant role, the increased human pressure during the Hellenistic–Roman transformation (ca. 2.5 ka BP) had less impact on geomorphodynamic activity than previously hypothesized. The study underscores the complex interplay between climatic systems and rural-urban cultural history in shaping landscape development, offering insights into regional-scale transformations in the eastern Mediterranean.
Mid- to Late Holocene geomorphodynamics in a long-term settled mountain catchment in the Pergamon micro-region, western Turkey
A study of the Pergamon micro-region, western Turkey, reveals significant mid- to late Holocene geomorphodynamics influenced by climate change and human activity. The research identifies four distinct sedimentation phases spanning from 6.2 ka to present, with a notable shift around 4 ka marked by aridization and rapid climate changes, superimposed by early human settlement impacts. Phase 3, in particular, shows the burial of floodplain edges by tributary sediments, while phase 4 (post-3.8 ka) indicates increased erosion and redeposition linked to changing settlement patterns. The findings highlight complex human-environment interactions that reshaped the landscape over millennia.
Shaping the Elite of Attalid Pergamon: A Reappraisal of the Epigraphic Dossiers Concerning Priesthoods
A reappraisal of epigraphic records reveals that the dual role of Pergamon as both a city and dynastic residence under the Attalid dynasty (Eumenes I to Attalos III) shaped its elite through intricate interactions between royal, courtly, and civic institutions. This study highlights how priesthoods and religious liturgies served as key mechanisms for consolidating power among social groups, with tenure, appointment privileges, and social dynamics playing pivotal roles in elite formation. By analyzing these epigraphic dossiers, the research offers new insights into the political and social strategies of the Attalids, demonstrating their sophisticated approach to integrating civic and royal authority.
The Attalids of Pergamon and Anatolia
A groundbreaking study reveals the Attalids of Pergamon's unique political and economic strategy, which enabled their improbable rise post-188 BCE. Unlike traditional coercive methods, they employed a non-coercive yet efficient approach to taxation and loyalty-building, collaborating with local officials on budgets and minting while transforming civic spaces like gymnasiums. This comprehensive analysis synthesizes epigraphy, archaeology, and numismatics to offer the first inside look at the kingdom's multicultural propaganda and its impact on Greek polis structures. The research challenges conventional narratives of Attalid imperialism by highlighting their distinct governance model.
Tracing an ancient monument within a multi-layered historical - urban context: the octagonal structure in Pergamon/Bergama
Recent archaeological discoveries in Bergama, Turkey, have uncovered the long-lost octagonal structure, situated beneath private properties at the southern edge of Pergamon's fortified city hill. This monument, part of the Attalid Kingdom's capital, exemplifies the 'multi-layered cultural landscape' phenomenon, where older urban layers are obscured by subsequent developments. The study highlights challenges in accessing and documenting such buried structures, emphasizing their potential for revealing hidden aspects of ancient cities. By tracing the octagonal structure's research history and current accessibility, this work underscores the significance of rediscovering monuments in complex historical-urban contexts.
An Odyssey to Heritage Education: The Inspiring Example of Bergama and Its Communities
Heritage education emerges as a transformative force, capable of fostering societal bonds and place-based connections through innovative strategies. Bergama (Pergamon), inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014, exemplifies this potential by integrating heritage into an educational framework that engages communities, academia, and local institutions. The city's systematic approach, rooted in participatory practices, has successfully positioned its cultural landscape—particularly vernacular architecture—as both tangible and intangible educational assets. This study highlights Bergama’s pioneering role in heritage education, demonstrating how collaborative efforts can bridge expertise, inclusion, and sustainability while offering a scalable model for global conservation discourse.
Archaeology Meets Local Needs? Experiences of the Pergamon Excavation in Intensifying Local Awareness of Cultural Heritage and Its Protection
Archaeological excavations at Pergamon have demonstrated that sustained engagement with local communities can significantly enhance awareness and protection of cultural heritage. Since its inscription on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2014, Bergama has seen increased attention to heritage preservation, but sustainable protection requires active community involvement. A capacity-building project implemented by the Pergamon Excavation between 2019-2021 successfully intensified local engagement through targeted initiatives, fostering a deeper understanding of heritage values and conservation practices. The project's outcomes highlight the potential for archaeological work to bridge scientific objectives with local needs, providing a model for other World Heritage Sites seeking to integrate community-based approaches in heritage management.
The Attalids of Pergamon and Anatolia: Money, Culture, and State Power
This study reveals how the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon leveraged economic power, cultural patronage, and civic organization to consolidate state authority across Anatolia. By analyzing epigraphic evidence and fiscal records, it demonstrates that their strategic use of wealth—particularly through tax collection and public works like gymnasiums—fueled both economic growth and cultural prestige. The research highlights Pergamon's unique blend of Hellenistic and Anatolian traditions, positioning it as a model for statecraft in the ancient world.
A Late Recompense: The Rediscovered Monumental Octagon at Pergamon
A monumental octagonal structure, previously overlooked despite its historical significance, was rediscovered beneath the modern city of Bergama, Turkey. This finding sheds light on Pergamon's complex multi-layered cultural landscape, spanning from Roman times to the present day. The discovery highlights the importance of archival research in unraveling the hidden layers of ancient cities with long research histories. The study examines the Octagon's history across three excavation periods, addressing its preservation state, access challenges, and the research methodology adapted to current conditions. This rediscovery not only enriches our understanding of Pergamon's past but also underscores the value of integrating archival materials into archaeological investigations.
An Overview of the Geomorphological Characteristics of the Pergamon Micro-Region (Bakırçay and Madra River Catchments, Aegean Region, West Turkey)
The Pergamon Micro-Region, shaped by tectonic activity forming distinct horst-and-graben structures, exhibits asymmetric geomorphological features between the northern Kozak Mountains and southern Yunt Dağı Mountains. This asymmetry in relief, drainage, and sediment accumulation has created a landscape with wide, flat basins and plateaus, ideal for agriculture and human settlement since at least the Hellenistic-Roman period. The study combines geomorphometric analysis of digital elevation models with satellite image interpretations to reveal how tectonic forces and human activities have co-evolved, leaving lasting imprints on the region's morphodynamics.
Antik Çağ’da Kütüphane Mimarileri: Efes Celcus, Pergamon (Bergama), İskenderiye ve Ninova Örnekleri
Libraries have evolved significantly over time, reflecting changes in society, information needs, and architectural techniques. A key insight from this study is the direct relationship between library usage and societal acquisition habits, which influences their spatial design and functionality. The research focuses on four ancient libraries—Ephesus Celsus, Pergamon, Alexandria, and Nineveh—evaluating their architectural structures to understand how they adapted to meet the information demands of their respective eras. Using a documentary screening method, the study analyzed literary sources to assess factors influencing library architecture, providing a comparative analysis of these monumental information centers.
How Much Is Enough? First Steps to a Social Ecology of the Pergamon Microregion
Environmental carrying capacity, not labor availability, likely limited local self-sufficiency in the Pergamon microregion during its transition from the Hellenistic to Roman Imperial periods. Researchers developed a transparent, reproducible model to assess agricultural production relative to environmental suitability and workforce, using topographic derivatives to create a carrying capacity index. Findings suggest that strategic investments, such as terrace construction, could have enhanced self-sufficiency. This study lays groundwork for understanding socio-ecological resilience in historical landscapes, with future research needed to explore system dynamics under varying environmental and cultural pressures.
Landscape gardening art of the Hellenistic states of Asia Minor
Hellenistic landscape gardening art in Asia Minor, particularly in Pergamon and the Pontic kingdom under Mithridates VI Eupator, integrated elements that foreshadowed Romanticism, blending utilitarian and aesthetic values. These parks featured unique collections of poisonous plants and herbs, which served as raw materials for drugs but also enriched landscapes with natural qualities intricately linked to Greek mythology and religion. The study, based on archaeological material from Pergamon's excavations and written sources like Nicander of Colophon's works, traces the historical heritage of Phrygian, Lydian, and Persian influences that shaped these landscapes.
The Yığma Tepe of Pergamon: Internal construction of a monumental burial mound from shear wave reflection sounding and wavefield modelling
Researchers have uncovered the internal structure of the Yığma Tepe, one of the largest burial mounds in the Eastern Mediterranean, using advanced seismic imaging techniques. The study revealed three distinct stratigraphic layers, each about 10 meters thick, representing different construction phases. Notably, a north-south-oriented collapsed walled cavity was identified within the middle layer, along with other seismic objects of interest (SOIs). Additionally, the study confirmed the existence of a tunnel system and shaft dug into the mound in the early 20th century, which caused significant damage extending up to the overlying layers. The research demonstrates the potential of shear-wave reflection seismic imaging to map small-scale structures under challenging topographic conditions, providing valuable insights into the mound's complex internal architecture.
Economic Valuation of Cultural Heritage Tourism Using The Zonal Travel Cost Method: A Case Study of Pergamon Ancıent City
A significant economic value of 26.741.248.677 Turkish Liras (TL) was attributed to Pergamon Ancient City through the Zonal Travel Cost method. This study highlights the substantial consumer surplus generated by cultural heritage tourism at the site, emphasizing its importance for sustainable resource management and intergenerational benefit transfer. The research utilized data from 330 questionnaires distributed among tourists, categorizing them into 33 zones based on travel distance. A multiple linear regression model identified key variables such as total spending, monthly income, gender, marital status, family size, and working members that significantly influenced the valuation. This approach provides a robust framework for assessing the economic impact of cultural heritage tourism, offering insights for policy-making and conservation efforts.
Helenistik Dönemin Metropol Şehri: Pergamon
Pergamon, during the Hellenistic period (323 BCE–30 BCE), emerged as a pivotal cultural and intellectual hub in Anatolia, embodying the synthesis of Eastern and Western influences. This study highlights Pergamon's significance as a representative of Hellenistic culture, showcasing its contributions to urbanization, architecture, religion, and art. By analyzing the transition from pre-Hellenistic to Hellenistic eras, the research underscores Pergamon's role in shaping Anatolia's scientific and artistic landscape. The work also evaluates the lasting legacy of this synthesis on ancient Anatolian history, emphasizing its unique mission as a center of learning and innovation. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of Pergamon's cultural and historical impact, bridging gaps between Eastern and Western traditions.
Pergamon – Bericht über die Arbeiten in der Kampagne 2018
In 2018, geophysical prospections at Pergamon revealed significant insights into the extent of an extraurban Roman thermal bath, advancing the understanding of the site's architectural layout. The campaign also marked the initiation of a new long-term project on the transformation of the Pergamon microregion during the Hellenistic to Roman Imperial periods. Additionally, geophysical investigations of the Tumulus Yığma Tepe provided concrete assessments of internal anomalies, while research on the Amphitheater addressed a critical gap in knowledge about the imperial-era metropolis. The study also explored rural settlement patterns and visual functions of the region through intensified surveys, contributing to a broader understanding of its cultural landscape. Conservation efforts included reconstructing a corner of the Palästra's peristyl and documenting damage in the East Thermes.
Pergamon – Das neue Forschungsprogramm und die Arbeiten in der Kampagne 2019
A new research program at Pergamon, 'TransPergMikro,' has uncovered significant insights into the transformation of the region between the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial periods. Key discoveries include a Nischenwand (niche wall) in the amphitheater, providing evidence of water retention structures within the arena, and a previously unknown construction terrace near the Asklepieion, shedding light on land use and settlement patterns. Systematic excavations at the Banketthaus revealed its architectural design and functionality, while geophysical surveys completed investigations at Tumuli Yığma Tepe and X-Tepe. The study also highlighted a marbled complex in the Kaikos Valley, indicating advanced building techniques and ceramic production. Additionally, a survey in Pitane explored the extent of local pottery manufacturing, contributing to understanding regional economic activities.
Royal mothers and dynastic power in Attalid Pergamon
Royal mothers played a pivotal role in the Attalid dynasty's public self-representation, particularly after Pergamon transitioned to a kingdom. The study reveals that Apollonis and Stratonike, who held the title of basilissa, were prominently featured in dynastic imagery with an emphasis on motherhood. Their influence extended beyond traditional gender roles, notably through religious benefactions and interactions between royal power and cities, especially for Apollonis. This research sheds light on how these women's agency shaped the Attalid kingdom's cultural landscape while adhering to societal norms of their time.
The Changing Policies on the Protection and Management of Archaeological Sites in Turkey: an Overview
Turkey's shift in archaeological site management policies, particularly since the late 1990s, has significantly expanded its presence on the UNESCO World Heritage List. This change reflects a broader strategy to promote tourism and meet international criteria, with 13 of Turkey's 18 World Heritage Sites now being archaeological. The study traces this evolution from Ottoman-era legislation, which prioritized strict control over excavations, to modern approaches that balance conservation with cultural asset enrichment. While earlier laws hindered new data collection, the current policy encourages tourism while ensuring sites like Pergamon and Ephesus meet UNESCO standards.
The Yığma Tepe of Pergamon: stratigraphic construction of a monumental tumulus from seismic refraction measurements
Researchers have uncovered the internal structure of Pergamon's monumental tumulus, Yığma Tepe, revealing it to be composed of three distinct conical disk layers, each approximately 10 meters thick. These layers form two internal plateaus and were likely compacted through anthropogenic processes, as indicated by increased silt and clay fractions in soil samples. The study utilized a combination of seismic refraction measurements, traveltime tomography, and visco-elastic forward modeling to create a three-dimensional seismic velocity model, validated by excavations, soil analysis, historical records, and geoelectric measurements. This approach allowed for the reconstruction of the tumulus's original surface and surrounding trench, accounting for 17% volume loss due to destruction and erosion. The findings provide unprecedented insights into the construction techniques and building history of this significant Hellenistic-era structure.
Urban Conservation Policies and Plans for a World Heritage Site Case: Antique Pergamon City and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape
Pergamon (Bergama), Turkey, achieved UNESCO World Heritage status in 2014 as a multi-layered cultural landscape, highlighting successful urban and archaeological conservation efforts spanning from 1992 to 2014. The study reveals that while such achievements are possible through coordinated policies by central and local governments, they come at the cost of time, financial resources, and potential loss in historical areas, particularly Ottoman houses and open archaeological sites. It also underscores persistent challenges faced by Turkey's urban and archaeological sites, including lack of public awareness, insufficient funding, and administrative inefficiencies. The research focuses on the conservation policies implemented by key authorities such as the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of Environment, Bergama Municipality, and the General Directorate of Vakiflar, providing a case study for effective heritage management.
You are here:
World Heritage Explorer > World Heritage Research > World Heritage Sites > Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape