Publications
Ancient Georgian Inscriptions in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and ‘Bethlehems’ in Georgia
Thirteen ancient Georgian inscriptions, including one attributed to Catholicos Maxime I of western Georgia (1639–1657), have been identified within the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. These inscriptions reveal a rich history of Georgian pilgrimage and religious engagement in the Holy Land during the 14th to 16th centuries, with Georgians establishing their own monasteries or residing alongside monks from other nationalities. The study highlights how Georgians brought sacral toponyms like 'Bethlehem' back to Georgia, leading to the founding of churches and monasteries dedicated to the Virgin of Bethlehem across the region.
Armenian Inscriptions and Graffiti of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem
Over seventy Armenian inscriptions and graffiti, the oldest dating to the early 13th century, have been identified within the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. This study highlights twenty of these inscriptions, providing a glimpse into the historical presence and contributions of Armenians in the Holy Land, particularly at this UNESCO World Heritage Site. The research involved two brief visits to the church, during which inscriptions were meticulously documented and analyzed. These findings contribute to our understanding of medieval Armenian cultural and religious activity in a significant Christian pilgrimage destination.
Evidence for 2–3 BC as the Date of the Nativity and the Star of Bethlehem
A comprehensive review challenges alternative proposals, reinforcing the traditional 2–3 BC date for Jesus’ birth. By scrutinizing historical records—such as Augustus’s census decree, Quirinius’s governorship, and Herod’s death—the study debunks claims suggesting earlier or later dates (e.g., 6–7 BC or AD 6–7). The research also interprets the Star of Bethlehem as a series of celestial events, including Jupiter-Venus conjunctions, aligning with astrological knowledge of the Magi. This conclusion supports the scientific credibility of the Gospels’ accounts by validating their historical and astronomical consistency.
From Abraham to Christ. A Family Tree on the Scale of the Church and its Epigraphic Exegesis
A monumental Tree of Jesse on the counter-façade of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, depicting genealogical ramifications and integrating prophetic inscriptions from the Old Testament and Gospels, offers a rare surviving example of such depictions in the East. This visual representation provides theological commentary linking Christ's first coming to his Second Coming (Parousia) and connects with Advent and Christmas liturgies. The study examines how Latin inscriptions were used to enhance the narrative, revealing the church's epigraphic exegesis and its role in religious symbolism.
How is Graffiti Done? . Scratching, Incising, and Engraving Stone in Bethlehem
Stone graffiti in the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, reveals sophisticated techniques contrary to the notion of spontaneous creation. The study identifies three primary methods: incision with simple tools like knives or points, often aided by rulers; hollow engraving using percussed dots, either isolated or connected; and V-shaped engraving through lateral percussion. These varied approaches, involving a range of skills and instruments, challenge the idea that such graffiti was created impulsively. Instead, they suggest a deliberate, premeditated process, blending improvisation with precision.
Portraits, Graffiti, and Tattoos. Visual Indicators of Individual Piety on the Columns and Walls of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem
A comparative analysis of visual indicators—portraits, graffiti, and tattoos—reveals how these elements serve as strategies for pilgrims to metonymically incorporate themselves into the sanctity of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. The study highlights the significance of supplicant images from the 12th century, offering new interpretations of their functions within performative contexts. Additionally, it examines the exponential increase in graffiti post-Crusader period, suggesting these markings aim to inscribe and perpetuate the embodied experience of the divine sphere in this sacred locus. The research employs a methodical approach to analyze these visual indicators, providing insights into their roles and impacts on individual piety.
Quotation and Glorification. Bethlehem’s Conciliar Texts in Local Context
A re-evaluation of the Church of the Nativity’s mosaics challenges conventional views, revealing that local Arabic-speaking mosaicists played an active role in their design. Contrary to the typical interpretation as mere 'Crusader' art reflecting Mediterranean exchange, this study demonstrates that the conciliar representations in the nave were deeply rooted in a Palestinian epigraphic tradition. The Greek texts on the walls functioned as signs of identity and history for a multilingual audience, suggesting a more complex local context than previously understood.
The Discovery and the Conservation of Graffiti on the Columns of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. The Voice of the Restorers
Hundreds of centuries-old graffiti left by pilgrims and travelers on the painted columns of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem were discovered during restoration work, revealing a previously overlooked layer of historical and cultural significance. The study details the meticulous cleaning and conservation process employed to preserve these marks, which included careful treatment to ensure their longevity without compromising the structural integrity of the columns. This unexpected finding underscores the importance of graffiti as a tangible link to past visitors and the site's enduring role in religious pilgrimage.
The Earliest Graffiti in Latin Characters in the Church of the Nativity
Research on the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem reveals eight previously unpublished graffiti inscribed in Latin characters, dating back to the Carolingian period and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These inscriptions, predating the more numerous pilgrim graffiti from the 14th to 16th centuries, showcase a diverse range of graphic gestures, messages (including names, prayers, and alphabets), reflecting the written practices of Western authors during these periods. The study highlights the significance of these early Latin inscriptions as a sample of historical written communication, offering insights into the origins and diversity of their creators.
Writing in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem
The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem is revealed as a rich epigraphic site with hundreds of inscriptions and graffiti spanning multiple languages and centuries. A recent study, involving a collaborative effort by epigraphists, historians, and art historians, uncovers a 'graphic symphony' of Latin, Greek, Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Slavic, and Rus scripts. This research challenges traditional labels like 'graffiti' and 'inscriptions,' instead exploring their purposes, materials, techniques, and distribution within the church's complex. The study highlights the interactions between different writings and languages, offering a new chapter in the history of this holy site and its use by pilgrims.
Exploring the potential and development strategies of dark tourism: a case study of Bethlehem Governorate, Palestine
Bethlehem Governorate, Palestine, harbors significant potential for dark tourism, offering a unique lens to explore themes of conflict, occupation, and historical injustice. Key sites such as the separation wall, Israeli settlements, military checkpoints, refugee camps, and memorials serve as poignant reminders of ethnic cleansing and apartheid, providing visitors with an immersive experience that fosters dialogue, education, and reconciliation. A SWOT analysis and TOWS matrix revealed that these underutilized sites could enrich Bethlehem’s tourism offerings while promoting socio-economic development. The study underscores the importance of strategic planning to leverage dark tourism for preserving collective memory, historical justice, and cross-cultural awareness.
Mural Paintings of “Nativity Church” in “Bethlehem” between Historical Value and the Uniqueness of Aesthetic Influences
The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, one of the oldest continuously used Christian sites, showcases mural paintings that reflect both historical significance and unique aesthetic influences. These artworks, inspired by Saint Helena's vision, have endured through centuries and recent restorations, drawing global attention to their artistic and symbolic value. The study analyzes these murals for their plastic solutions and symbolic content, revealing mutual influences with other religious and Islamic architectural depictions. This research highlights the maturity of the artists' craftsmanship, despite the church's ancient history, and underscores its enduring cultural and artistic impact.
Niccolò da Poggibonsi and the “Magical” Bread of Bethlehem
A 14th-century Franciscan friar, Niccolò da Poggibonsi, documented a unique Bethlehem tradition where bread made with water from the Church of the Nativity's well was believed to possess 'magical' properties, particularly for pregnant women. Analysis of his account in Libro d’Oltramare reveals how this ritual symbolically connected cosmic forces through bread and water, offering insights into medieval spiritual practices tied to sacred sites.
Glorious Past(s)
Frankish patrons during the Crusader era strategically manipulated biblical narratives and foundation legends to assert legitimacy, prestige, and construct identity. The study examines how biblical typology was exploited in crusader written sources and visual culture, notably through monumental works like the western lintel of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, mosaics in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, and capitals from the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth. Additionally, it explores how the Military Order of the Hospital of Saint John incorporated elaborate foundation legends into their pictorial cycles, exemplified by the mural cycle in the Hospitaller church at Emmaus (Abu-Ghosh). The research combines textual analysis with visual and monumental landscape examination to reveal the complex interplay between spirituality, art, and identity construction.
HBIM Modelling for the Architectural Valorisation via a Maintenance Digital Eco-system
A novel HBIM (Horizontal Building Information Modeling) methodology has been developed and validated for the architectural valorization of heritage sites, specifically applied to the Peace Center in Bethlehem. This approach integrates SLAM-TLS (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping - Terrestrial Laser Scanning) digital surveys with a federated sub-model system, enabling geo-referenced data repository creation for optimized maintenance operations. The study, part of the 'SMART Bethlehem' project, demonstrates how recursive ECO-Systemic workflows—comprising five key steps from 3D scanning to architectural modeling and level-of-information enhancement—can support sustainable urban development and energy optimization in historically significant buildings near UNESCO World Heritage Sites like the Church of the Nativity. The methodology offers a scalable framework for preserving cultural heritage while addressing operational challenges.
The Complexities of Patronage
The mosaic program and column paintings of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem reveal complex patterns of medieval patronage, involving high-ranking figures such as Emperor Manuel Comnenus, King Amalric, Bishop Ralph, and the artist Ephraim. The study highlights a collaborative process where donations from Western pilgrims contributed to the embellishment of the church's nave over an extended period, demonstrating diverse forms of patronage in the Latin Kingdom during the 12th century.
The History of Palestine
A historical analysis reveals that Palestine's continuous recorded history spans 3,500 years, marked by significant geopolitical shifts and cultural transformations. The study highlights key events such as Egyptian conquests, the rise and fall of empires like Assyria and Babylon, and the Persian takeover in 538 BCE, which reshaped the region's landscape. It also documents the religious tensions between Latins and Orthodox Christians at the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem in 1847, a conflict that escalated into the Crimean War. The research approach combines historical documentation with geopolitical analysis, providing insights into the enduring complexities of Palestinian history.
The Status of Christians in Jerusalem and Bethlehem in the Seventeenth According to the Ottoman Sijills of the Shari'a Court in Jerusalem-Sijill No. (119) as a Model
A detailed examination of Ottoman Sharia court records reveals the complex dynamics between Christian denominations in Jerusalem and Bethlehem during the 17th century, particularly focusing on Sijill No. (119). This 562-page document, covering a span of approximately 100 days from July to October 1632, provides unprecedented insights into ecclesiastical disputes, property conflicts, and ritual controversies. Notably, it highlights the intense competition between Greek Orthodox and Franks over the possession of keys to the Church of the Nativity. The study also underscores the role of the Ottoman Empire's Humayun Court in issuing binding rulings, while simultaneously documenting royal decrees that addressed inter-Christian disputes during this period. This research offers a nuanced understanding of religious coexistence and conflict within the broader context of Ottoman rule.
Assessment of Seismic Damage in Nativity Church in Bethlehem Using Pushover Analysis
Seismic vulnerability analysis of the Church of the Nativity, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the oldest surviving Christian churches, reveals significant structural weaknesses. The study found that the church's transversal (Y) direction is particularly vulnerable to seismic forces, with crack widths exceeding international building code limits—up to 13.7 mm in some areas. Damage concentrations were identified in the main lateral walls, vaults, and their connections to the apse, highlighting critical failure points. The research employed advanced finite element modeling (using DIANA FEA and SAP2000) combined with pushover analysis to simulate seismic behavior under monotonically increasing horizontal loads. While the church exhibits a 'low modal period' characteristic of masonry structures, the findings underscore the need for urgent structural reinforcement and more sophisticated nonlinear dynamic analysis to account for material nonlinearity in future assessments.
Chapter 5 Scandinavian Holy Kings in the Nativity Church of Bethlehem
The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, one of Christianity's holiest sites built over the grotto identified as Jesus' birthplace since the fourth century, features the oldest extant images of St. Knud of Denmark and St. Olav of Norway, dating to the 12th-century Crusader period. These paintings, executed in encaustic technique, occupy prominent columns within the church's nave, raising questions about their significance and the patrons behind their creation. The study, based on art historian Gustav Kühnel's seminal work from 1988, examines the context and implications of these Scandinavian royal saints' depiction in such a prestigious setting.
Decorated Walls, Description, and Cultural Memory. Between Byzantium, Persia, and Early Islam
Wall mosaics from early Byzantine buildings, though rare, hold significant cultural and religious meaning. A study reveals that two ninth-century texts—al-Buhturī’s Arabic poem 'Īwān Kisrā' and the Greek Letter of the Three Patriarchs—expand our understanding of these artworks by describing likely mosaics in the Sasanian palace at Ctesiphon and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. These descriptions highlight how monumental art facilitated cross-cultural communication, shaping identities for Byzantine, Persian, and early Islamic viewers. The research suggests that such mosaics were potent symbols, bridging traditions and influencing cultural memory beyond their original contexts.
Review Article
A comprehensive review of the restoration efforts at the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, published in 2020, highlights the challenges and innovations in preserving one of the oldest continuously active churches in the world. The study, edited by Claudio Alessandri, focuses on the historical, architectural, and conservation aspects of the site, which dates back to the 4th century. It emphasizes the importance of balancing structural integrity with the preservation of its religious and cultural significance, using advanced techniques to address issues such as moisture damage and seismic vulnerability. The review also examines the role of international collaboration in safeguarding this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Techniques for Mosaics Documentation through Photogrammetry Data Acquisition. The Byzantine Mosaics of the Nativity Church
A robust, replicable methodology for high-resolution documentation of Byzantine mosaics using photogrammetry has been established. By systematically testing and comparing survey instruments and acquisition techniques, researchers achieved unprecedented detail in ortho images of the Nativity Church's mosaics—enabling precise digitization of individual tiles. This approach not only advances mosaic preservation but also introduces an automated vectorization system for large-scale data management. The study demonstrates that structured photogrammetric processes can be adapted to other heritage contexts, bridging traditional documentation with modern digital techniques.
The Mystic Cave. A History of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem
A multidisciplinary consortium, led by art historical consultant Michele Bacci, has uncovered significant insights into the history and architecture of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Through extensive research since 2010, the team has shed light on the evolution of this ancient basilica, particularly focusing on its 'Mystic Cave,' believed to be the site where Jesus was born. The study integrates art historical analysis with archaeological and architectural documentation, providing a comprehensive understanding of the site's layers of history, from its Byzantine origins to later modifications. This research not only enriches our knowledge of Christian heritage but also offers valuable perspectives on the preservation and interpretation of World Heritage Sites.
Visual performances of power in the period of the Danish crusades
A notable finding in the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, reveals how visual art served as a tool for asserting power during the Danish crusades. Marble columns depicting biblical figures and early Christian saints, including a Norwegian king adorned with Byzantine regalia but bearing Norman insignia, illustrate the fusion of warrior imagery with ecclesiastical authority. This artistic adaptation reflects contemporary ideals of rulership, blending crusade contexts with the aspirations of emerging Christian elites, such as those in Gniezno (Poland) and Schleswig (Denmark). The study analyzes architectural and iconographic elements to demonstrate how visual performances reinforced political ambitions within a limited elite circle during this period.
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