Publications
Investigating the impact of the Iraqi film industry on attracting foreign tourists
Films significantly boost tourism to Erbil Citadel, one of Iraq's oldest heritage sites dating back 6000 B.C., by enhancing the country's positive image and travel motivation. A study found that 'Film Influence' directly impacts tourist behavior (β = 0.72), with films effectively promoting cultural attractions and strengthening Iraq's tourism brand. The research, combining quantitative surveys of 100 international tourists and qualitative interviews with industry experts, used SPSS and PLS-SEM for data analysis. Experts highlighted films as a key driver in stimulating visitation and marketing heritage sites. Policymakers are advised to leverage film production, develop infrastructure, and create targeted campaigns to harness this strategic tool for tourism growth.
Mutation or Reusing: A Decision Based on Functional Analysis of Historical Houses’ Configurations
Quantitative spatial analysis emerges as a powerful tool for assessing the adaptive reuse potential of historic residential architecture while preserving cultural value. A study focusing on courtyard houses within Erbil Citadel, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iraq, demonstrates that this approach can effectively evaluate spatial performance and circulation logic to inform conservation strategies. By integrating functional analysis with statistical validation—using Euclidean distance and Pearson correlation—the research identifies key characteristics compatible with adaptive reuse across different contexts. This method offers a rigorous model for sustainable planning in similar heritage settings, bridging theory and practice to guide informed decision-making.
The strategy of urban development of the citatel cities comparative study between design strategy of the development of the citadel of aleppo and the citadel of erbil
Historical citadels significantly influence urban development and shape city centers, serving as both tourist attractions and strategic landmarks. A comparative study between the Citadel of Aleppo and Erbil's Citadel reveals that Erbil's isolation from its role as an urban node has led to a loss of integration with surrounding areas, despite its historical significance and current status as a capital in Iraq's Kurdistan region. The research identifies a lack of clear strategic development perception for Erbil's citadel, which impacts the integrity of the citadel and its historical characteristics. By analyzing Aleppo's model, known for its effective urban development strategy, the study proposes that integrating citadels into their surrounding urban fabric can enhance their role as constructive landmarks and tourist attractions.
Analysis of vernacular dwellings in Iraq: A comparative study of Erbil citadel and old Akre
Vernacular architecture in Erbil Citadel and Old Akre, two historic Iraqi settlements, demonstrates context-sensitive design principles that address climatic, topographical, and social factors while maintaining cultural continuity. A comparative analysis reveals how both sites efficiently use locally available resources—such as mud brick and timber in Erbil or stone and lime in Old Akre—to achieve thermal comfort, privacy, and community integration. Erbil’s compact, inward-oriented courtyard houses contrast with Old Akre’s terraced layout, adapted to mountainous terrain, yet both showcase sustainable design strategies that remain relevant for contemporary urban development. This study highlights the potential of traditional practices as a framework for climate-responsive and culturally integrated architecture.
Cultural Heritage and the SDGs: Bridging Gaps in Iraq’s Urban Recovery
Iraq's urban recovery efforts, particularly around UNESCO World Heritage Sites like the Erbil Citadel and Mosul's Old City, are missing critical connections to global sustainable development goals (SDGs). While physical conservation meets SDG 11.4, it overlooks broader economic, social, and governance objectives tied to SDGs 8, 16, and 17. This study reveals a misalignment between international heritage frameworks and local governance in Iraq, hindering inclusive, community-driven urban regeneration. By comparing safeguarding, economic impact, inclusivity, and governance across the two sites, researchers propose a new framework that integrates heritage initiatives more effectively with SDGs, advocating for a shift from mere preservation to sustainable, locally grounded development.
Examining the Hashim Chalbi House’s Spatial Aspects in Erbil Citadel: Understanding the Museum’s Configuration Potential via Depthmap Analysis
Space syntax analysis reveals the Hashim Chalbi House, a historic residence turned museum within Erbil Citadel (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), holds significant potential for conservation and restoration while preserving its architectural and cultural integrity. This study addresses a recognized gap in spatial analyses of heritage buildings by using depthmap analysis to map and interpret the house's spatial configuration, offering insights into social and cultural interactions. The findings provide actionable guidance for maintaining the museum's historical authenticity and functionality, ensuring that future conservation efforts balance structural preservation with adaptive reuse.
Preserving the Past to Shape the Future: The Evolution of Office Spaces Through Historic Building Adaptation
Adaptive reuse of historic buildings into modern office spaces can successfully balance cultural heritage preservation with contemporary workplace needs, enhancing employee satisfaction and creativity. A study focusing on Erbil Citadel houses found that integrating historical features—such as aesthetics, natural light, and airflow—into office environments fosters a sustainable and functional work setting. Survey data from 60 respondents revealed strong preferences for spaces that blend tradition with modern functionality, emphasizing the importance of sustainable practices and technological integration in shared areas. The research highlights the need for decision-makers to adopt culturally attuned strategies that align heritage conservation with community requirements, offering a framework for reconciling historical narratives with modern office demands.
The Effect of Implemented Heritage Building Projects On Outstanding Universal Value: The Case of Erbil Citadel
Rehabilitation projects at Erbil Citadel have demonstrated a statistically significant positive impact on its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), enhancing both authenticity and integrity. This finding underscores the potential for conservation efforts, when aligned with international standards, to not only preserve but also strengthen OUV. The study employed a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative expert evaluations with qualitative content analysis, guided by the Nara Grid and UNESCO operational guidelines. A virtual tour of three distinct rehabilitation projects served as the basis for structured questionnaires, revealing that both tangible and intangible aspects must be addressed collaboratively to maintain OUV. This research highlights the complementary nature of authenticity and integrity in heritage preservation.
The importance of a new approach for sustainable revitalization of heritage buildings: Erbil Citadel Houses as best practices
A groundbreaking methodology for sustainable heritage reuse, applied to the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel houses, demonstrates how adaptive reuse can preserve cultural integrity while enabling modern functionality. This approach minimizes invasive construction and extends building lifespans, serving as a blueprint for global heritage conservation. By integrating strategies that balance architectural significance with contemporary uses—such as cultural centers, museums, and boutique accommodations—the study highlights the potential to stimulate economic activity and foster urban development without compromising historical identity. The framework offers a scalable model for other World Heritage Sites, emphasizing environmental sustainability, cultural continuity, and adaptive reuse as key pillars of heritage conservation.
The Inherent Sustainability of Traditional Architecture in the Citadel of Erbil: With Reference to Residential Buildings in Erbil City
Traditional architecture in the Citadel of Erbil demonstrates inherent sustainability that can inform modern residential design. The study developed tailored Sustainability Assessment Methods (SEAM and SSAM) to evaluate environmental and social performance, comparing three traditional and three contemporary houses in Erbil. Findings suggest that traditional designs—rooted in local climate adaptation and cultural values—offer sustainable alternatives for contemporary urban planning. The research highlights the potential of integrating traditional architectural principles into modern residential buildings to enhance sustainability, providing actionable guidelines for policymakers and designers.
Assessment of Slope Stability at Erbil Citadel, Kurdistan Region of Iraq Using Bejerman’s Method
A study assessing slope stability at Erbil Citadel, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the world's longest-continuously inhabited sites, reveals significant risks due to severe erosion and creep. Using Bejerman’s method, researchers evaluated 11 stations around the citadel, identifying Landslide Possibility Index (LPI) values ranging from 18–22, indicating medium to high failure potential at nine locations. This assessment highlights critical instability threats to historical structures, particularly on the citadel's edges, underscoring the need for urgent slope stabilization measures to preserve this ancient site.
Common architectural characteristics of traditional courtyard houses in Erbil city
Traditional courtyard houses in Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, predominantly feature three-sided courtyards, wooden doors, traditional windows, arches, and brick ornamentation as their most common architectural elements. These characteristics not only define the spatial and mass organization of these structures but also reflect their adaptation to local climatic conditions. A qualitative inductive content analysis, utilizing drawings and photographs, revealed variations in house composition while identifying key architectural styles. The Erbil Citadel serves as a backdrop for this study, which highlights the enduring influence of traditional design on urban architecture.
Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, the Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions
Residents of Erbil, Iraq, overwhelmingly recognize the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel as a defining symbol of their city's cultural and historical identity. A study involving 440 participants found that local awareness of the Citadel's significance positively correlates with its perceived value as a brand for urban development and tourism. The research, using mixed-method surveys analyzed via SPSS, underscores the importance of cultural education in leveraging heritage sites to strengthen city branding. These findings offer actionable insights for policymakers aiming to harness Erbil’s historical assets for international recognition.
Erbil Citadel as a Brand for the City, The Role of Residents Awareness and Perceptions
Residents of Erbil recognize the Citadel's cultural significance, positioning it as a strong potential brand for the city. A mixed-method survey involving 440 participants revealed that local perceptions play a crucial role in shaping urban identity and tourism strategies. The study highlights the importance of leveraging historical assets like the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel to enhance city branding, offering insights into how community awareness can drive sustainable urban development.
Evaluating the Viability of the Erbil Citadel Houses for Adaptive Reuse Process
A study on the Erbil Citadel Houses identifies key aspects of adaptive reuse as a sustainable strategy for historic structures, addressing a significant research gap in conflict-affected Middle Eastern regions. The research evaluates the viability of adaptive reuse by analyzing its challenges and opportunities, aiming to establish best practices that can guide sustainable development efforts. This approach offers potential solutions for preserving historical sites while promoting economic and social resilience.
The Impact of Modernism on Contemporary Erbil Architecture
Modernist architecture has significantly reshaped Erbil's urban landscape, transitioning from traditional practices to contemporary styles between the early 20th century and the 1980s. This shift, driven by modernist influences, left a lasting impact on the city's historical buildings, urban planning, and environmental integration. The study evaluates how these changes have influenced Erbil's architectural identity, drawing insights from diverse sources such as maps, visuals, and legislative texts. It highlights the complexities of this transformation while contributing to the broader discourse on contemporary architecture in Erbil.
The Impact of Traditional Architectonic Characters on the Environmental and Thermal Condition of Houses: A Case Study of Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq
Traditional houses in Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq, demonstrate superior thermal comfort compared to modern counterparts due to their passive and natural building techniques. A study found that traditional houses maintain indoor temperatures between 21.2°C and 26.3°C with low humidity (9%–11%), aligning with ASHRAE-recommended comfort zones, while modern houses struggle, recording temperatures between 28°C and 37°C with higher humidity (12%–16%). The research, conducted during June and July 2023 under typical summer conditions (maximum outdoor temperature: 39–41°C), used adaptive thermal comfort models for validation. By comparing four modern houses in Erbil with a traditional case from the Erbil Citadel, the study highlights the potential of integrating traditional architectural features to improve indoor thermal conditions in contemporary housing.
Assessing the Soundscape Characteristics of Historical Urban Environments: An Analysis of the Historical Erbil Citadel and Its Environments
Research reveals that the soundscape of historical urban environments, such as Erbil Citadel, plays a pivotal role in shaping the perception and identity of these spaces. The study identified distinct sound sources contributing to the city's audio-visual experience, which are at risk during renewal processes. By analyzing Sound Pressure Levels (SPL) and applying Schafer’s sound characteristics, the research pinpointed sounds critical to preserving Erbil’s cultural identity. A soundwalk method was employed to map current acoustic conditions, offering actionable insights for safeguarding the citadel's unique auditory heritage.
Introducing a Conceptual Model for Assessing the Present State of Preservation in Heritage Buildings: Utilizing Building Adaptation as an Approach
A conceptual model for assessing the preservation state of heritage buildings, focusing on building adaptation, has been developed and tested. This model effectively categorizes various adaptation activities such as restoration, retrofitting, and conservation, aiding in accurate assessment and application across case studies. Applied to Erbil's heritage buildings, including the UNESCO World Heritage Site Erbil Citadel, the model revealed that while most buildings have undergone restoration for public use, significant interventions are needed to enhance energy efficiency and sustainability. The framework serves as a practical tool for academics and practitioners, promoting consistency in describing adaptation work and reducing costs associated with unmet requirements.
Investigation of Rainwater Quality in Erbil Province and the Feasibility of Various Uses
Rainwater quality in Erbil Province, Iraq, varies significantly by location, with samples from outside the city center and hilly or mountainous zones being cleaner than those from urban areas. The study found that rainwater is generally suitable for irrigation, fish production, swimming, and building without treatment, while minimal sedimentation and disinfection are required for drinking and domestic use. Researchers analyzed 21 parameters, including sulfate, turbidity, and pH, using samples collected between December 2019 and February 2020 from six distinct areas, including the Erbil Citadel. Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping with Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation visualized these findings, providing spatial insights into rainwater quality across different terrains.
Preserved built heritage assessment as dead or living: An assessment study regarding built heritage safeguarding approaches in Erbil
A study assessing built heritage preservation efforts in Erbil's traditional sectors reveals that local authorities predominantly employ a 'dead heritage' approach, prioritizing static conservation over dynamic revitalization. This contradicts the recommendations outlined in the 2006 comprehensive preservation plan for the UNESCO-listed Erbil Citadel, which advocates for a 'living heritage' approach to safeguard at-risk structures. The research analyzed 222 vernacular and traditional buildings using 40 criteria representing both approaches, through fieldwork and statistical analysis. Findings suggest that adopting the living heritage approach could effectively rescue these structures from their current at-risk status, offering a more sustainable model for built heritage conservation in Erbil.
Settling the riverscape of Erbil (Kurdistan Region of Iraq): long-term human overprint on landforms and present-day geomorphological hazard
Excessive urbanization in Erbil, Kurdistan Region of Iraq, has significantly altered the city's landscape and increased its susceptibility to geomorphological hazards, particularly floods. The study reveals that human activities, including road construction and the development of residential and industrial areas since the 1950s, have obliterated the pristine fluvial network, leading to a shift from agricultural to urban land use. This transformation has reached a tipping point during the Anthropocene, where unchecked urban growth exacerbates natural processes, posing risks to the city's stability. The research combines satellite and historical aerial images with field data to reconstruct changes in land use over time, highlighting the profound impact of human agency on the region's geomorphology.
Sustainability-based hybridization interventions, the urban fabric of Erbil Citadel - Iraq – As a case study
Sustainable hybridization interventions can effectively balance tradition and modernity within historical urban fabrics, as demonstrated by the Erbil Citadel in Iraq. This study reveals that such interventions—measured through open spaces, movement axes, and functional hybridization—enhance sustainability while preserving cultural integrity. By analyzing restoration efforts using computer-aided planning tools, researchers identified a holistic model for hybridization that aligns with ancient urban structures. The findings suggest that successful hybridization depends on factors ensuring consistency with historical fabric and contemporary needs, offering a scalable approach to urban conservation worldwide.
The Erbil Citadel Ceramic Corpus: A preliminary Analysis of the Main Productions and Their Relationships with Archaeological Stratigraphy
A preliminary analysis of the ceramic corpus from the Erbil Citadel, conducted collaboratively by the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) and the Italian Archaeological Mission in Iraqi Kurdistan (MAIKI), reveals distinct production patterns that correlate with the site's archaeological stratigraphy. The study, based on ceramics excavated between 2013 and 2015, identifies key ceramic types and their chronological relationships, offering new insights into the Citadel's occupational history. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the material culture and stratigraphic layers of one of Iraq's most significant UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Impacts of the Renovation Master Plan on the Tourism Development in Archaeological Site of Erbil Citadel
A comprehensive renovation master plan for the Erbil Citadel has significantly enhanced tourism development, offering a model for sustainable heritage conservation. The study highlights that strategic investments in cultural heritage management can overcome longstanding challenges faced by developing countries, such as Iraq's Kurdistan Region, where limited domestic focus on tourism often undermines potential growth despite rich archaeological assets. By analyzing secondary data from the High Commission for Erbil Citadel (HCECR) and reviewing key documents, the research identifies critical stakeholder perspectives and quantifies tourism's dual role in both conserving heritage and driving economic benefits. Recommendations emphasize balancing visitor influx with preservation efforts to ensure long-term sustainability.
Using Laser Scanning Techniques to Study the Visual Identity of Heritage Houses Facades in Erbil City (1900-1930)
A study analyzing the visual identity of heritage houses' facades in Erbil Citadel (1900–1930) reveals distinct morphological characteristics that define their aesthetic continuity. Using laser scanning techniques, researchers documented 20 facades, identifying consistent features such as regular masses, non-symmetric compositions, and dominant elements like windows and entrances with vertical alignment. The analysis also highlighted the use of brick as the primary material, harmonious color schemes, and a single architectural style. Beyond documentation, this method offers a novel approach for studying visual identity in heritage preservation, providing quantitative and qualitative insights that could inform architectural practices.
Adaptive Reuse of Traditional Architecture under the Influence of Intelligent Systems
Traditional cafes within the buffer zone of Erbil Citadel, Iraq, can benefit significantly from adaptive reuse through intelligent systems. A study found that integrating sensors and wireless connectivity into existing devices enhances functionality while preserving cultural identity. Key findings include the need for new systems to address modern user demands without compromising spiritual identity or spatial aesthetics. The research recommends periodic adaptive reuse—every five years—to improve performance and sustainability. Using an inductive, qualitative approach, it combined literature review with physical surveys, observations, and interviews with stakeholders. This method revealed that intelligent systems can bridge traditional architecture with contemporary needs, offering a model for balancing heritage conservation with innovation.
Assessment of Urban Identity and Its Components: A Case Study of Erbil
Erbil Citadel embodies the unique urban identity of Erbil, characterized by its historical and architectural significance. This study reveals that the citadel, along with areas like Tajeel and Khanaqa district, fulfills key components of urban identity, including environmental and social elements. The research employs a two-stage methodology: a literature review on urban identity and visual analyses (photographs, maps, observations) to examine how Erbil's historical and spatial context shapes its identity. By analyzing these areas, the study aims to enhance planning and decision-making processes while increasing awareness of the city's brand value. The findings highlight the importance of preserving such sites for their cultural and historical significance.
Role of urban preservation to achieve sustainable urban development – Preserving Erbil Citadel as case study
Urban preservation plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable urban development, as demonstrated by the case study of Erbil Citadel. The research highlights that integrating heritage conservation with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can prevent the loss of cultural assets and revitalize historical buildings within urban contexts. Specifically, the study emphasizes the importance of resettling original inhabitants to ensure the citadel's integration into the surrounding urban fabric rather than its conversion into a museum. This approach serves as a model for balancing traditional human life with modern sustainable development principles, contributing to the global preservation of cultural heritage while addressing urban sustainability challenges.
Lo Studio del Corpusceramico della Cittadella di Erbil e dei Contesti Archeologici di Ritrovamento: Risultati Preliminari
Preliminary analysis of the ceramic corpus from the Erbil Citadel excavations reveals significant insights into the archaeological stratigraphy and cultural layers of one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited sites. The study, conducted jointly by HCECR (Hawler Christian College Erbil) and MAIKI (University of Milan), demonstrates that ceramic artifacts can serve as a reliable indicator of temporal and functional changes within the citadel over centuries. By examining the ceramics in their stratigraphic context, researchers identified distinct phases of occupation, shedding light on the evolution of urban life in Erbil from ancient times to the present. This approach combines typological analysis with contextual archaeology, offering a refined understanding of the site's complex history and its significance as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Revitalization of the Arab District, Erbil City, Iraq
A proposed revitalization of the Arab District in Erbil, Iraq, aims to transform it into a cultural tourism hub by creating a livable pedestrian route connecting the Erbil Citadel and Al-Muzafariyah Minaret. This initiative seeks to enhance the district's historical alleyways with green spaces, entertainment activities, and traditional experiences, such as observing the crescent moon during Ramadan nights. The project is expected to boost economic growth, improve livability, and revitalize adjacent UNESCO World Heritage Sites—Erbil Citadel and Al-Muzafariyah Minaret—by fostering cultural tourism and social engagement.
The Effect of Centrality Values in Urban Gentrification Development: A Case Study of Erbil City
Urban areas with high connectivity values, measured through place centrality, do not always experience corresponding transformations in land use and importance. This study identifies such discrepancies in Erbil's urban fabric, particularly around the Erbil Citadel, which suffers from functional and accessibility issues despite its significance. The research proposes that touristic gentrification could bridge these gaps by enhancing connectivity between the citadel and peripheral areas. Using Urban Network Analysis (UNA) and centrality principles, the study maps out potential gentrification locations to improve urban cohesion and visual consistency. This approach offers a strategic solution for addressing weak links in urban development while leveraging tourism-driven revitalization.
The History of Mar Yahballaha and Rabban Sawma as a Source for Ilkhanid History
A detailed analysis of the 'History of Mar Yahballaha and Rabban Sawma' reveals critical insights into Ilkhanid policies toward the Church of the East, particularly during the reign of Aḥmad/Teguder. The narrative, written before 1319, provides a unique perspective on the treatment of Christians in Erbil, including the revolt of the Mongol garrison that led to the elimination of the city's Christian population. By comparing this Syriac account with a Persian narrative by Qāshānī, researchers identified parallels that offer a nuanced understanding of historical events. The study also highlights the author's focus on church history and his detailed reporting on ecclesiastical constructions and relationships with sovereigns, while omitting significant interactions with Latin Christians. This work underscores the importance of primary sources in reconstructing historical narratives.
A virtual & an augmented reality application of the Rashid Agha's diwakhana in the citadel of erbil using 360° 3D Lidar
A groundbreaking application of 360° 3D LiDAR technology has enabled the non-intrusive documentation and virtual reconstruction of Rashid Agha's diwakhana within Erbil Citadel. This method circumvents the need for physical intervention, which could otherwise risk damage to these fragile structures. The study demonstrates how LiDAR-derived point clouds can be used to create immersive augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) experiences, facilitating both research and public engagement without compromising archaeological integrity. By leveraging data collected from ground-based or aerial platforms, the approach offers a precise, scalable solution for preserving and exploring historical monuments in their original state.
The impact of social classes on the residential heritage Buildings Erbil Citadel as a case study
A study on the Erbil Citadel reveals that social class divisions significantly influenced the design of residential buildings, supporting the hypothesis that class distinctions shape architectural heritage. The research, employing a historical and analytical approach, examined three distinct regions within the citadel—Saray, Takiya, and Topkhana—reflecting Ottoman Empire social stratification until 1918. Findings indicate that economic, professional, lifestyle, and cultural factors underpinning class differences translated into architectural variations in residential structures. The study's two-part methodology first explored theoretical aspects of social layering and historical context, followed by an analysis of how these dynamics manifested in the citadel's design. This work contributes to understanding the interplay between societal structures and tangible heritage preservation.
Study of Erbil Al-Qala citadel time changes by comparison of historical and contemporary image data
A comparative analysis of historical and contemporary image data reveals significant structural changes within the Erbil Citadel particularly highlighting the destruction of numerous objects during the latter half of the 20th century. The study leverages Bradford's 1951 stereoscopic aerial photographs and modern very high-resolution (VHR) satellite imagery from Ikonos (2003), QuickBird (2005), and Pleiades (2014) to create digital models and orthophotos. By processing these datasets using Agisoft PhotoScan software, researchers identified missing or altered structures, providing a detailed mapping of the citadel's historical evolution. This approach underscores the potential of long-term image data analysis in documenting and preserving cultural heritage sites.
The Role of Erbil Citadel Precinct in Developing the City Tourism Sector
Erbil Citadel, one of the oldest preserved cities and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, faces significant challenges that hinder its potential as a tourism hub. Key issues include poor connectivity between the citadel and its surrounding precinct, visual inconsistencies, and negative activities that deter both tourists and locals. The study identifies these deficiencies through land use classification via direct survey and GIS mapping, followed by problem adjustment based on local and international standards. It proposes creative strategies to revitalize the urban fabric, foster local-global interactions, and attract foreign investment in tourism. This approach aims to transform Erbil Citadel into a dynamic cultural and economic asset, addressing both functional and accessibility gaps while aligning with global best practices.
Erbil Citadel restoration: some thoughts on earth-built constructions exposed to seismic action
Restoration efforts at Erbil Citadel, a 7,000-year-old UNESCO World Heritage Site, reveal critical insights into the seismic performance of traditional earthen constructions. The study assessed eight buildings on the 32-meter-high artificial mound, highlighting their vulnerability to seismic action despite their historical significance and cultural value. Using advanced structural analysis, researchers identified key weaknesses in these ochre-brick courtyard houses, providing data-driven recommendations for sustainable preservation. These findings underscore the need for innovative restoration techniques that balance historical integrity with modern seismic safety standards.
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