Publications
Spatial assessment of groundwater recharge, agricultural pumping, and hydrodynamic stress in the complexe terminal aquifer (Ghardaïa, Algeria) using GIS and Remote Sensing
A severe localized groundwater crisis threatens historic oasis perimeters in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, with agricultural pumping exceeding natural recharge by factors of 10 to 12.7, despite a macro-scale surplus balance. This paradox arises from distorted macro-balances due to vast uncultivated peripheral areas. The study employs an integrated GIS-ArcGIS, remote sensing (NDVI), and multi-criteria decision analysis (FAHP) framework to map optimal upstream green-engineering retention sites along Wadi M'zab and Wadi Metlili, aiming to maximize floodwater infiltration and stabilize vulnerable water tables. The validated FAHP model offers a targeted solution to mitigate local depletion, providing critical insights for sustainable groundwater management in hyper-arid regions.
The Semiotic Construction of Meaning in Photographic Representations of Traditional Architecture in the Wilaya of Ghardaïa: A Semiological Analysis
Photographic representations of traditional architecture in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, reveal layered cultural meanings tied to collective identity and social organization. Key visual elements—such as mosque minarets, narrow alleyways, earthen walls, and traditional doors—serve as signifiers evoking concepts like solidarity, religious-spatial order, privacy, climate adaptation, and deep-rooted belonging. The study applies semiological analysis, distinguishing denotative (literal) and connotative (cultural) meanings using Roland Barthes' framework. Nine archival images from Ghardaïa's heritage were analyzed alongside semi-structured interviews to contextualize findings. This approach demonstrates how architecture functions as both a physical structure and a symbolic carrier of cultural narratives.
Comparative Study of Intimacy Between Millennial Vernacular Islamic Habitat of M’zab and Standardized Modern Habitat
A comparative analysis of the M'Zab Valley reveals significant differences in spatial and superficial intimacy between its millennial vernacular Islamic architecture and standardized modern habitats. The study quantifies these dynamics using ophthalmology calculations, Panero and Zelnik's spatial design principles, and interpersonal communication thresholds, while also considering gender-specific resonance frequencies. Findings suggest that the M'Zab's architectural design effectively protects privacy through sensory experiences, contrasting with modern approaches. This research highlights the cultural and functional depth of Islamic architecture, offering insights into its sustainability and intergenerational adaptability.
Sheikh Abdelaziz bin Mohammed Al-Hashemi Al-Sharif and His Intellectual, Religious, and Political Influence in Southeastern Algeria: A Historical Study of His Role in Sufi Networks, Reformist Movements, and the Algerian National Struggle (1898–1938)
Sheikh Abdelaziz bin Mohammed Al-Hashemi Al-Sharif (1898–1938) emerges as a pivotal figure in southeastern Algeria, wielding profound influence across religious, economic, and political spheres during the early 20th century. As leader of the Qadiriyya Sufi order in the Oued Souf region, he became a cornerstone of local resistance against French colonial policies, bridging spiritual networks with reformist movements and national struggles. His strategic role extended across multiple regions, including Laghouat, M'zab Valley, Ouargla, Biskra, and Touggourt, cementing his significance in both intellectual and political landscapes. The study dissects his educational trajectory, alliances with reformist currents, and interactions with colonial authorities, while also analyzing the 1938 Colonial Education Decree and the 'Second Amiche Revolt,' offering a nuanced understanding of his multifaceted impact on Algerian history.
Transformations of Housing in the M'Zab Valley: Contemporary Urban Challenges and Threats to Identity
Recent urban development in the M’Zab Valley poses significant threats to its architectural identity and sustainable urban planning. While new housing projects outside the traditional ksour are necessary to meet growing demand, they disrupt the valley's historical landscape and Saharan aesthetic. A chronological analysis of these transformations reveals shifts in design elements, raising questions about the preservation of cultural heritage and the impact on built identity. The study highlights the tension between modernization and the maintenance of unique urban characteristics that have long defined the region.
Citizen Participation in Traditional Algerian Societies: The Cases of New KSOUR of Mzab and the Village of Ait El Kaid
Traditional Algerian societies demonstrate sophisticated mechanisms of citizen participation that predate modern democratic paradigms. This study highlights the distinct participatory processes in two UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the new ksour of M'Zab Valley, where 'twiza' governs communal building efforts, and Ait El Kaid village, where 'tajmaat' guides environmental protection initiatives. While both systems foster collective decision-making, they differ in structure and application, reflecting unique cultural adaptations. The research underscores the resilience of indigenous governance models in managing social and environmental challenges, offering insights for contemporary participatory frameworks.
Customary Traditional Architecture in the M’zab Valley
The M'Zab Valley's traditional architecture stands out for its unique blend of unity and diversity, reflecting centuries-old customary systems deeply influenced by the Ibadi doctrine. This architectural landscape is characterized by interconnected elements that showcase equivalence across dwellings and facilities like mosques, while also exhibiting remarkable diversity in forms and patterns. Unlike rigid stylistic templates, this diversity emerges as a conscious response to local needs, incorporating social practices, intellectual pursuits, religious traditions, cultural expressions, historical influences, environmental considerations, and economic factors.
Flood risk assessment using modern models integrated with GIS for susceptibility mapping of the M'zab Valley watershed (Algeria)
A flood susceptibility mapping study of the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, revealed high predictive accuracy for two modeling approaches: frequency ratio (FR) and logistic regression (LR). Both models achieved over 92% success rates in validation tests, with FR and LR predicting 86% and 88.1%, respectively. The research enhanced bivariate probability analysis by integrating multiple variables—including distance from rivers, rainfall, soil type, land use/land cover, elevation, drainage density, flow accumulation, and slope—to assess their influence on flooding. By training models with 70% of flood inventory data and validating with the remaining 30%, the study demonstrated robust performance in susceptibility mapping, offering critical insights for flood risk management in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Implementing Sustainability in Urban Desert Regions Through Solar Orientation, The Islamic Vernacular Architecture of the M'zab Ksour in Particular
Traditional Islamic architecture in the M'Zab Valley's Ksour demonstrates how solar orientation can create sustainable urban environments in desert regions. A geometric analysis of road systems in three Ksour—El Atheuf, Beni Yezguen, and Tafilalet—revealed that optimal lane alignment mitigates extreme insolation while enhancing pedestrian comfort. Statistical comparisons showed that historical Ksour (El Atheuf and Beni Yezguen) excel at integrating climatic challenges, offering a model for resilient urban design in arid climates. This study highlights the potential of merging traditional knowledge with modern practices to advance sustainable development in desert cities.
Intercommunal Relations in the M'Zab During the Pre-Colonial Period: Between Collaboration and Conflict
Intercommunal relations in the M'Zab Valley, southern Algeria, during the pre-colonial period were characterized by a complex interplay of collaboration and conflict among the Mozabite Ibadites, Jews, ḥamriyas, and nomadic Malikite tribes. This study reveals that coexistence was shaped by economic cooperation, shifting alliances, and power dynamics, providing critical insights into historical interactions that continue to influence contemporary ethnic and doctrinal tensions in the region. The research combines documentary analysis of demographic composition, historical roles, and local interviews to reconstruct these relationships, emphasizing the significance of pre-colonial history in understanding present-day conflicts, including those observed in 2015.
Marketing of Dried Agricultural Products: What Socio-Economic Opportunities for the Saharan Regions?
In the M'Zab Valley dried agricultural products serve as a vital food source for impoverished populations but face significant socio-economic and technical challenges. A study revealed that 73% of retailers lack awareness of proper processing techniques, while 68% prioritize profitability over quality preservation. Despite rudimentary handling and storage systems, 68% of retailers view the activity as profitable, with 55% being illiterate or having only Koranic education. The research, combining bibliographic data and stakeholder questionnaires, highlights critical gaps in infrastructure, processing methods, and commercial practices that hinder sustainable development in this Saharan ecosystem.
The Importance of Social Sustainability for Conserving Cultural Heritage in Southern Algeria: A Case Study of the M'Zab Valley
A study on the M'Zab Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in southern Algeria, reveals that social sustainability is critical for preserving its cultural heritage. The research found that residents highly value 'quality of housing,' with only 5-7% expressing a desire to relocate or change residences. Using a case study approach, the authors surveyed 200 households across two fortified villages (Ksour) in Al-Atteuf and Beni-Isguen, assessing indicators such as social networking, safety, sense of attachment, and quality of life. The findings highlight both the strengths and challenges faced by the Mozabite community, particularly in the context of rapid social and cultural changes. This work underscores the importance of integrating social sustainability into conservation strategies to safeguard intangible and tangible heritage.
The Management of the M'Zab Valley World Heritage Site: Legal Issues and Stakeholder Coordination
A study on the M'Zab Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage site, reveals significant governance challenges that hinder effective heritage preservation amid rapid urbanization. Key issues include gaps in steering mechanisms, poor coordination among stakeholders, and skill deficits. The research combines regulatory framework analysis with stakeholder interviews to propose a new governance model aimed at optimizing site management while addressing contemporary urban development pressures.
The Palaces of the M'Zab Valley Between the Past and the Present. A Case Study of the Palace of Elattef - Ghardaia Province, Algeria
Recent research on the UNESCO-listed M'Zab Valley palaces, including the historic Palace of El Atteuf, reveals significant transformations in their architectural integrity due to environmental, demographic, and socio-economic pressures. Despite maintaining their distinctive style over centuries, these structures face increasing distortions, threatening their preservation. The study employed a dual methodology: historical analysis to trace the palace's past and descriptive-analytical fieldwork, including surveys of 100 residents, to assess current conditions. Findings underscore the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect this World Urban Heritage site from further degradation.
Understanding the authenticity of traditional housing in Algeria: keys to intervening in heritage spaces of mozabit housing
Algeria's M'Zab Valley showcases a traditional Saharan habitat that harmonizes with its bioclimatic and natural environment, offering valuable insights for heritage conservation. This study reveals the region's architectural richness through an analytical approach, examining its natural context, morphology, housing, and construction techniques. Fieldwork, including photography, surveys, and expert discussions, uncovered specificities that highlight the valley's adaptive design strategies. The findings provide a deeper understanding of Mozabite housing authenticity and potential intervention strategies for similar heritage sites, drawing lessons from traditional practices to inform sustainable preservation efforts.
Urban Development, Heritage Preservation, and Stakeholder Dynamics in the M’Zab Valley: A Strategic Analysis Using the MACTOR Tool
A strategic analysis of the UNESCO World Heritage site M'Zab Valley, Algeria, reveals significant governance challenges that hinder effective heritage preservation amid urban development pressures. The study identifies a prioritization gap where institutional stakeholders favor urban expansion over cultural conservation, exacerbated by poor coordination and weak legal frameworks. Using a mixed-methods approach—including documentary analysis, stakeholder interviews, and the MACTOR tool—the research demonstrates that underdeveloped co-governance mechanisms and limited technical capacity further complicate sustainable heritage management. Key recommendations focus on integrating diverse stakeholders, strengthening sectoral policy alignment, fostering participatory decision-making, and upgrading legal and technical instruments to address contemporary sustainability challenges. These insights offer a global model for balancing development and preservation in culturally significant urban contexts.
A Strategy to Improve Comfort Level and Optimize the Thermal Behavior of the Building
Traditional Ghardaian architecture in the M'Zab Valley demonstrates exceptional energy efficiency and thermal comfort, offering valuable lessons for sustainable building practices. A comparative study between a vernacular dwelling in Ksar Beni Isguen and a modern residence in Ksar Tafilelt revealed that traditional designs significantly reduce reliance on active heating and cooling systems while maintaining optimal living conditions. This research highlights the potential of ancient architectural strategies to mitigate excessive consumption of non-renewable energy, underscoring their relevance for contemporary sustainable development.
Ancient Settlements With Traditional Ways of Living – Revitalization and Popularization Experience: Cases of M'zab Valley in Algeria and Kryvorivnia Village in Ukraine
Revitalization of ancient settlements preserving traditional ways of living can be successfully achieved through community-driven initiatives, as demonstrated by the cases of M'Zab Valley in Algeria and Kryvorivnia Village in Ukraine. Both settlements, geographically isolated and deeply rooted in historical traditions, have adopted distinct yet effective strategies for sustainability. M'Zab Valley maintains a controlled tourism model, managed by local volunteer guides, while Kryvorivnia invites tourists to immerse themselves in local rituals and festivals. The preservation of ancient culture and architecture in these settlements is underpinned by their harmonious integration with the natural environment, ensuring both the necessity and feasibility of sustaining local traditions. This comparative study highlights the potential for traditional settlements to thrive through balanced tourism development and community engagement.
Determination of Zones at Risk of Flooding During A Breakage of an “El Abiod Ghardaia” Dam
A potential catastrophic flood risk has been identified in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, due to the vulnerability of the El Abiod Ghardaia Dam. The study highlights that a dam break could release a massive flood wave, posing significant danger to the population and the UNESCO World Heritage Site. Researchers developed a hydraulic model using ARCGIS and HECRAS (HEC-GEORAS) to simulate the propagation of flood waves along the studied sections, employing both 1D and 2D HEC-RAS digital models. This approach allowed for the spatial mapping of flood zones, providing critical data to support risk mitigation and sustainable development in the valley.
Impact of gendered female space on the sustainability of the architectural and urban heritage: the case of the M'Zab Valley
In the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, traditional gender norms have historically restricted women to domestic spaces, but societal changes—particularly increased education and employment opportunities—have begun to shift this dynamic. A study involving surveys of 100 Mozabite women and interviews with experts reveals that while most women still associate their primary role with the home, a significant majority (60%) express a desire for greater agency in public spaces and decision-making. This emerging visibility challenges long-standing gendered spatial practices but also highlights the tension between cultural preservation and evolving social expectations. The research underscores the importance of understanding how gender dynamics intersect with architectural heritage sustainability, offering valuable insights into conservative cultural contexts.
Learning from the past: old and new ksour in the M’Zab Valley (Algeria)
Community involvement plays a crucial role in preserving the authenticity and integrity of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as demonstrated by the M'Zab Valley in Algeria. This site uniquely maintains both tangible and intangible heritage dimensions through traditional construction techniques, exemplified by the new settlement of Tafilalt. The study highlights how changes in lifestyle and housing models threaten traditional building cultures, risking the Outstanding Universal Value of sites due to the spread of modern technologies. By analyzing the M'Zab Valley's approach, the research underscores the importance of recognizing and integrating traditional practices into contemporary development to safeguard heritage.
Renewal of community-based artificial recharge with its principles of circularity and water sharing˸ the case of an oasis in the M'zab valley (Algeria)
This study highlights the resilience of community-based artificial aquifer recharge systems, exemplified by the ancient oasis of Beni Isguen in Algeria's M'Zab Valley. It demonstrates that long-term sustainability requires collective action and a delicate balance between water availability and use, principles increasingly threatened by individual pumping and entrepreneurial agriculture. The research employs an interdisciplinary socio-hydrological framework, integrating social water management and circular economy concepts to co-construct knowledge with local communities. Key findings underscore the importance of inclusive governance for responsible water use, the potential for circular infrastructure in new agricultural extensions, and the added value of blending scientific expertise with experiential knowledge. The study suggests that traditional oasian principles of water sharing and circularity offer sustainable alternatives to conventional development paradigms, which often prioritize energy-intensive hydraulic technologies over ecosystem preservation.
Renouveau de la recharge artificielle communautaire et ses principes de circularité et de partage de l'eau ˸ cas d'une oasis de la vallée du M'zab (Algérie)
A centurion-old aquifer recharge system in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, demonstrates resilience through collective action and balanced resource management, offering a sustainable model for water use in arid regions. This study highlights how traditional oasis practices—rooted in circular economy principles (reduce, recycle, regenerate) and inclusive governance—mitigate groundwater depletion and promote equitable access. By comparing an established oasis (Beni Isguen) with newer agricultural extensions, researchers reveal that decentralized pumping disrupts long-term sustainability, whereas community-led recharge infrastructure preserves water quality and quantity. The findings underscore the potential of socio-hydrologic approaches to blend scientific expertise with local knowledge, providing a blueprint for ecologically sound and socially just Saharan agriculture.
The Floodwater Management System in Ghardaia M’Zab Valley, Sakiya (Bouchamjan as a Model)
In the arid M'Zab Valley, specifically within Ghardaia's Bouchamjan area, a traditional floodwater management system demonstrates remarkable resilience and functionality despite extreme climatic conditions. This ingenious approach, involving dams (saqiya) and canals, effectively harnesses scarce rainfall to transform destructive floods into a sustainable water source, fostering thriving oases in an otherwise unforgiving desert. The study highlights the enduring effectiveness of these structures, which have withstood time, devastating floods, and harsh environmental factors while contributing significantly to the region's prosperity. By analyzing the topography, climate, and stages of system establishment, the research underscores the local ingenuity that has sustained this heritage for centuries.
Living heritage sites in the M'zab valley (Algeria): community and continuity
The ancient ksour settlements of the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, have endured for over a thousand years, maintaining their original functions despite the rise of new residential areas. This resilience is attributed to cultural and social factors rather than physical ones. Key elements include strong community solidarity, the built environment serving as an ancestral heritage and symbol of identity, the comfort and convenience of ksour living, and adherence to tradition with social control. However, recent concerns threaten their long-term viability, necessitating governmental attention. Unlike prior research focusing on tourism and conservation, this study highlights continuity and sustainability, addressing gaps in understanding the broader factors contributing to these settlements' resilience.
The emerging saffron value chain in the M’Zab valley – southern Algeria: an analysis of ongoing dynamics and strategic development options
Algeria's saffron industry, particularly in the UNESCO-listed M'Zab Valley, shows strong potential for growth but faces challenges that hinder its development. The study reveals a value chain with notable strengths—such as profitability and high-quality production—and opportunities driven by rising global demand for natural products. However, weaknesses like limited producer skills and marketing inefficiencies, along with threats from fraudulent imported saffron, constrain its performance. A participatory SWOT analysis identified strategic pathways to bolster the industry, emphasizing institutional reforms and export strategies to capitalize on expanding market needs.
Ancient Traditional Settlements in Algeria: Pentapolis of M'Zab Valley
The Pentapolis of M'Zab Valley in Algeria represents a unique example of long-standing urban tradition and architectural adaptation, offering insights into the harmonization of ancient practices with modern living. This study highlights the exceptional preservation of five historic ksour settlements within the valley, showcasing their traditional planning structures and climate-adaptive building techniques tailored to the harsh Sahara desert environment. The research emphasizes the resilience of these communities, which have maintained their urban infrastructure and architectural styles for over a millennium, demonstrating sustainable coexistence with their surroundings. By analyzing macro-level urban design and climate adaptation strategies, this work provides a compelling case study for understanding how ancient traditions can endure in the face of modernity.
Lessons from Tradition in the Building of Contemporary Settlements: The Case of Tafilalt in the M'zab Valley, Algeria
Contemporary settlements in the M’zab Valley, Algeria, can successfully integrate traditional planning and building methods to address rapid population growth while preserving cultural heritage. The study of Tafilalt, a settlement established in 1997, reveals how residents and developers adapted long-standing protocols—such as those used for the ancient towns—to create a cohesive, sustainable community. Through in-depth interviews, researchers found that these adaptations not only maintained the valley’s architectural identity but also met modern needs, suggesting Tafilalt could serve as a model for other regions balancing tradition with development.
Re-emergence of dry toilets and fecal nutrient reuse in M'zab cities
In the M'Zab Valley, dry toilets have re-emerged as a sustainable sanitation solution, offering both agricultural and environmental benefits. This study reveals that human excrement from these systems can serve as an effective fertilizer, supporting local agriculture while addressing oasis degradation. The research identifies three distinct phases in the use of dry toilets: a period of strong recycling dynamics, a decline due to the adoption of flush toilets and groundwater discovery, and a recent resurgence driven by environmental concerns. Interviews with locals provided insights into this cyclical pattern, suggesting that dry toilets can complement modern sanitation systems. This finding underscores their potential as a sustainable practice in arid regions, reviving an ancient tradition for contemporary challenges.
Water management and the agricultural development constraints in the Algerian Sahara: Case of the M'Zab Valley
Agricultural expansion in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, triggered by the 1983 APFA law, has faced significant decline due to ecological challenges like urban discharges and rising water levels. This study identifies critical constraints—particularly workforce shortages and water management issues—that threaten the sustainability of farms and ecosystems in this Saharan oasis. Through extensive field research, including direct surveys with farmers, it reveals that while initial agricultural enthusiasm led to rapid expansion, long-term viability is at risk without targeted interventions. Recommendations focus on preserving the ecosystem while maximizing public investments, offering a blueprint for balancing development with environmental sustainability in arid regions.
Water wells quality assessment using water quality index for the purposes of drinking of M’zab Wadi region
A comprehensive assessment of groundwater quality in the Daia region of M'Zab Valley reveals that 94% and 88% of water samples collected in 2016 and 2017, respectively, meet excellent standards for drinking purposes according to Algerian regulations. The study employed the Water Quality Index (WQI), a single-number metric that consolidates multiple physico-chemical parameters to evaluate overall water quality. Analysis of 18 groundwater points over two years demonstrated significant variations in parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, and ion concentrations, underscoring the region's hydrochemical diversity. This research highlights the Daia region's groundwater as a reliable source for drinking water, providing critical insights for sustainable water resource management in UNESCO-listed M'Zab Valley.
The Impact of the Religious Dimension as Building, Urban Fabric and the Social Behavior of the Population
The M'Zab Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Algeria, exemplifies how religious architecture and urban design have shaped social behavior and urban authenticity. This study reveals that the Islamic urban fabric of Ghardaia, founded by the Abadites in the 10th century, blends practical creativity with ethical systems to adapt to the region's harsh climate while preserving architectural uniqueness. The research highlights the valley's enduring influence on urban planning, showcasing its adaptive design, aesthetic appeal, and social customs—inspirations that continue to attract global attention.
Azoto-Phosphoric Potentials of Groundwater in the M'Zab Valley (Algeria)
Groundwater quality in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, varies significantly between deep and shallow aquifers. Deep aquifer waters generally meet World Health Organization (WHO) potability standards for key parameters like pH, ammonium (NH4+), and nitrate (NO3-), making them suitable for human consumption and irrigation. In contrast, shallow aquifer waters often exceed safe limits, particularly for electrical conductivity (EC) and nitrate levels, posing potential health risks to residents. The study analyzed 16 deep boreholes and 12 shallow wells along the Oued M'Zab River, revealing that while deep groundwater remains relatively pristine, shallow waters are increasingly polluted, likely due to agricultural or anthropogenic influences. Continuous monitoring and treatment interventions are recommended to mitigate pollution risks and preserve water quality in this UNESCO-listed valley.
A novel method for assessing the chromatic integration of architecture in theKsourianlandscape of M'zab Valley, Algeria
Research reveals that the Ksourian landscape of M’zab Valley, Algeriaexhibits strong chromatic integration between urban settlements and natural surroundings. This study used the Natural Color System (NCS) to analyze color palettes from both landscapes, identifying perceptual similarities through NCS nominal and relation identities. Findings highlight the unique chromatic character of the Ksourian landscape as a key heritage value, with potential applications in urban restoration processes.
Urbanisation de la vallée du M’zab et mitage de la palmeraie de Ghardaïa (Algérie) : un patrimoine oasien menacé
Urban expansion in the M'Zab Valley, Algeria, is significantly threatening its UNESCO-listed oasis heritage, characterized by unique architecture and urban organization. The study identifies key actors and factors driving these urban encroachments, which not only compromise the valley's cultural and architectural integrity but also degrade its environment. By analyzing historical and contemporary urban development patterns, the research highlights the delicate balance between preserving this intangible heritage and addressing modern urbanization demands.
Groundwater sources assessment for sustainable supply through photovoltaic water pumping system, in M’zab valley, Ghardaia
A study identifies the M'Zab Valley, Ghardaia, as a promising region for sustainable water supply using photovoltaic water pumping systems (PVWPS). The research reveals that the valley's groundwater table is abundant, with static averages ranging from 50 to 150 meters depending on location. Key zones—Ben-Isguen, Bounoura, and AL-Atteuf—are deemed optimal for PVWPS installations due to their favorable hydraulic structures. The study combines field investigations with statistical data analysis to assess groundwater behavior, aiming to optimize system performance amid dynamic variables like solar radiation and temperature. This approach addresses the need for reliable water supply in remote desert areas, offering a sustainable solution for domestic usage.
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