Publications
Carbon stocks and biodiversity diverge between seasonally flooded and semi-evergreen tropical forests in the Yucatan Peninsula: implications for conservation in a threatened dry landscape
Research in the Calakmul region reveals that seasonally flooded lowland forests (SFLF) store significantly less carbon but exhibit higher biodiversity compared to semi-evergreen tropical forests (SETF). While SETFs showed greater basal area, canopy height, and carbon stocks (118.9 t C ha⁻¹ vs. 63.6 t C ha⁻¹), SFLFs demonstrated greater species diversity due to reduced competitive dominance from periodic flooding. Floristic composition differed entirely between the two forest types, with no overlap in species distribution. The study highlights the ecological importance of SFLFs and warns that projected drought trends could lead to landscape-scale carbon losses, which low-resolution global models may overlook. These findings underscore the need for nuanced conservation strategies that account for the unique ecological roles of seasonally flooded forests.
Mamíferos medianos y grandes que habitan Balam Kú
A recent study identifies the medium to large mammals inhabiting Balam Kú, a critical component of the UNESCO-listed Ancient Maya City and Protected Tropical Forests of Calakmul. These species play vital roles in maintaining ecological balance within one of Mesoamerica's largest tropical forest mosaics, the Selva Maya. The research highlights the biodiversity significance of this protected area, emphasizing its importance as a refuge for wildlife amid extensive natural reserves in Campeche, Mexico. The study employs field observations and data analysis to document the presence and distribution of these key mammalian species.
Revealing “Unequal Natures”—The Paradox of Water Vulnerability for People on the Periphery of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
A striking imbalance exists between ecological conservation and socioeconomic development around the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Despite being a UNESCO World Heritage Site with advanced conservation measures—such as management plans, advisory councils, and payments for ecosystem services—68% of households in adjacent communities face prolonged water scarcity, experiencing over 30 days annually without access to water. This paradox, revealed through household surveys and stakeholder interviews, underscores the structural mismatch between conservation efforts and local human well-being in protected areas.
Spatiotemporal diversity of medium and large-sized terrestrial mammals in the Maya Forest, Mexico
The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR) serves as a critical refuge for 28 species of medium and large-sized mammals, with higher richness and abundance observed within its boundaries compared to surrounding areas. A six-year study (2016–2022) revealed distinct spatial patterns in mammal communities, influenced by habitat use and environmental conditions. Temporal fluctuations in relative abundance suggest that water availability and extreme climatic events significantly impact these assemblages. While the CBR acts as a stronghold for biodiversity, adjacent community-managed territories also play a vital role in supporting species persistence, particularly those threatened by land-use change and hunting pressure. The presence of key species like jaguar (Panthera onca), Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii), and white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) underscores the reserve’s strategic importance for conserving large terrestrial mammals in Mexico.
Trailblazing development: Effects of state-led interventions on forest degradation patterns and local governance in the Calakmul—Sian Ka’an Corridor, Mexico
State-led interventions in Mexico's Calakmul–Sian Ka’an Corridor (CSC) significantly alter forest degradation patterns, with effects varying non-linearly based on prior forest condition, disturbance history, and local governance. Unlike deforestation, degradation dominates forest change dynamics, with biomass loss depending on disturbance type, rate, and recovery potential. The study reveals that local communities selectively adapt conservation and development interventions through existing rules, labor practices, and aspirations, rather than uniformly resisting or supporting them. Using remote sensing, institutional analysis, and scenario modeling, the research demonstrates that future land-use trajectories hinge on whether interventions strengthen long-term landscape investments like agroforestry or exacerbate short-term deforestation pressures.
Witnessing the Colonization of a Biodiversity Stronghold by Coyotes Using Local People’s Knowledge
Research reveals that coyote colonization in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, a critical biodiversity hotspot, has accelerated significantly over the past decade. Using local ecological knowledge (LEK) from 272 and 461 participants across 30 communities, the study mapped spatio-temporal patterns of coyote expansion, showing nonlinear range growth. Notably, 88% of respondents reported coyote-related knowledge, with 38% acquiring it outside Calakmul through migration, underscoring LEK's dynamic and translocal nature. The findings highlight parallel yet asynchronous progression of colonization and knowledge development, emphasizing the need for early detection to manage coyote-ecosystem interactions. Conservation efforts should prioritize community-based monitoring strategies in collaboration with local communities.
Ecological-based insights into bat populations in the Yucatan Peninsula under a One Health approach: coexistence or biophobia
Research on bat populations in the Yucatán Peninsula reveals that land use significantly impacts both bat diversity and their gut microbiome, with conserved and agricultural landscapes supporting higher species richness compared to suburban areas. The study identified 18 bat species, predominantly frugivorous, from 308 sampled individuals, establishing a baseline for zoonotic disease screening in the region. Using a One Health approach, the team also assessed public perception, finding that children generally exhibited positive responses toward bats, underscoring the need for educational initiatives to foster biophilic attitudes. The gut microbiome of these bats was dominated by Pseudomonadota, Bacillota, and Actinobacterota, with notable bacterial families including Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcaceae, and Streptococcaceae.
Estimación del Potencial de Captura de Carbono en Suelos de un Sitio de la Reserva de Calakmul durante la Temporada de Lluvias
A sub-evergreen tropical forest within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve demonstrates high carbon storage potential, despite some localized degradation. Soil analysis revealed neutral to moderately alkaline conditions with low salinity and a sandy loam to sandy clay loam texture, supporting medium to very high organic matter (OM) and carbon content. The study found significant correlations between moisture levels and conductivity, as well as inverse relationships between silt/clay content and pH, indicating soil texture's influence on chemical properties. While the site's carbon sequestration potential is lower than semi-remote forests or national parks but higher than urban areas like Mexico City, it remains a valuable reservoir for carbon storage. The research suggests that large-scale degradation has not significantly impacted these properties, preserving Calakmul's ecological and climatic benefits.
Estudio de la Variabilidad Espacial en el Depósito de Azufre en la Reserva de Calakmul Durante la Temporada de Lluvias
Research at the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve reveals that its sub-evergreen tropical forest maintains high carbon storage capacity, despite some localized degradation. The study found that soil properties—neutral to moderately alkaline pH, low salinity, and sandy loam to sandy clay loam texture—support medium to very high organic matter and carbon content, promoting fertility and nutrient availability. While moisture levels varied with depth (higher at the surface due to the rainy season), significant correlations were observed between moisture, conductivity, silt/clay content, and pH, indicating soil texture's role in chemical dynamics. Though carbon sequestration potential was lower than in semi-remote forests or national parks but higher than urban areas like Mexico City, the site retains robust ecological resilience. The study employed passive sulfur sampling to assess atmospheric deposition during the rainy season, providing insights into spatial variability and long-term stability.
Externalities Associated to the Mayan Train
The Mayan Train, a significant infrastructure project connecting Mexico's southeast region, has exacerbated social and environmental conflicts around the UNESCO-listed Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Research reveals that while the train aims to boost regional development, it has intensified water scarcity, deforestation, community displacement, and tourism-related land use changes. A study analyzing economic, social, and environmental impacts through interviews with key stakeholders and surveys of 70 individuals found a complex network of actors balancing individual interests with broader benefits. The findings highlight the unintended consequences of large-scale infrastructure projects on protected areas, particularly in terms of externalities affecting local communities and ecosystems.
Extreme fighting and vocalisations in Tapirus bairdii: observations from aguadas of Calakmul, social arenas for the species
Researchers have uncovered rare and aggressive behaviors in Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii), including intense fighting and complex vocalizations, challenging the species' reputation for shyness. Over a decade of monitoring in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, revealed that ponds called aguadas serve as social arenas where tapirs engage in serious fights and produce various whistles, likely linked to courtship. These findings shed light on the social dynamics of this endangered Neotropical ungulate, offering insights into the causes of wounds and scars observed in adults. The study highlights the importance of these behaviors for tapir conservation efforts.
Felid activity at artificial water troughs in a tropical forest in southeastern Mexico
Artificial water troughs serve as critical management tools for sustaining felid populations during prolonged droughts, with visitation rates increasing significantly in dry years. A five-year camera-trap study at the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve revealed that pumas and ocelots were the most frequent users of these water sources, while margays were rarely detected. Felid activity was predominantly crepuscular or nocturnal, with jaguars showing greater temporal overlap with pumas than with ocelots, suggesting potential interspecific avoidance. These findings highlight the importance of water provisioning strategies in tropical ecosystems to mitigate the impacts of climate change on apex and mesopredator populations.
Jaguar density in the forests of the Gran Calakmul Region, Mexico
A new study estimates the jaguar population density in the Gran Calakmul Region, Mexico, to be between 1.683 and 2.635 jaguars per 100 km² across three sites, with no significant change observed over five years at one site. Using camera traps and Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture (SECR) models, researchers found densities lower than previous estimates from the Mexican National Jaguar Census (CENJAGUAR), suggesting a smaller population in the Yucatán Peninsula Jaguar Conservation Unit (JCU). The study highlights the need for ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to protect this endangered species and its habitat within the Selva Maya.
New regional-scale Classic Maya population density estimates and settlement distribution models through airborne lidar scanning
A groundbreaking study leveraging airborne lidar scanning has revealed that the Classic Maya civilization (300–900 CE) was far more populous and uniformly organized than previously believed. Analyzing a vast, 95,000 km² area of the Central Maya Lowlands—including the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Calakmul—the research estimates a population of 9.5 to 16 million people in this region alone. The findings challenge long-held assumptions about Maya urbanism by demonstrating a consistent spatial model for settlement and agriculture, linking elite and non-elite zones across both urban and rural landscapes. This uniform structure suggests efficient periodic interactions, reshaping our understanding of the civilization's political and economic dynamics. The study aggregates diverse lidar datasets, including reprocessed environmental data with enhanced visibility, to achieve unprecedented regional-scale insights.
Population Dynamics and Survival Strategies of Two Endangered Ungulates in a Low Water-Availability Site of the Maya Forest of Mexico
Research reveals distinct survival strategies among two endangered ungulates—the white-lipped peccary and the tapir—in the water-scarce Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. While the peccary population fluctuated dramatically, disappearing during dry periods before reappearing near scarce water sources, the tapir maintained stable occupancy across nearly all ephemeral ponds over a decade. This study, analyzing 10 years of camera-trap and radiotelemetry data from 18 ponds, highlights their contrasting resilience to arid conditions, offering critical insights into conservation strategies for these rapidly declining species in Mesoamerican forests.
Population trends of jaguars in a tropical forest in southern Mexico
Research reveals that jaguar population density in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR), southern Mexico, stands at 1.03 individuals per 100 km², with males (0.59) and females (0.44) showing distinct detection patterns likely due to trail usage. The study used sex-structured open capture–recapture models to analyze spatiotemporal trends, finding that jaguar activity centers remain stable despite temporal variations. Key findings include a negative correlation between road proximity and detection rates, net primary productivity influencing movement, and border distance affecting population density. Jaguars exhibit low circadian overlap, slightly higher during the rainy season, indicating spatial segregation. The CBR's continuous habitat is critical in mitigating edge effects, underscoring its importance for jaguar conservation.
Potential predation of a mud turtle by a jaguar (Panthera onca): evidence from camera traps in the Mexican Maya Forest
A rare instance of potential predation of a mud turtle by a jaguar (Panthera onca) was captured using camera traps within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. This observation contributes to the limited documentation of reptile consumption in jaguars' diets, particularly in Mexico. The study employed 4,705 trap-nights over two years to monitor vertebrate communities in the Maya Forest, revealing a subadult jaguar holding an unidentified mud turtle (Kinosternon sp.) in its jaws in November 2023. This finding underscores the dietary flexibility of jaguars and highlights the utility of camera traps in studying predator-prey interactions in tropical ecosystems.
Raptor Visitation to Natural and Artificial Water Sources in a Tropical Forest in Southern Mexico
Raptor visitation to water sources in Calakmul, Mexico, is significantly influenced by temperature and the type of water source. The study found that as daily maximum air temperatures rise, visits to artificial drinking troughs increase 4.5-fold, while those to natural sartenejas (rock cavities) increase 4-fold. Natural water sources, including waterholes and sartenejas, attract a higher diversity of raptor species compared to artificial ones, with notable dissimilarity in species composition between these habitats. The research highlights the critical role of both natural water conservation and managed drinking troughs in supporting raptor populations, particularly those classified as globally declining.
Taxonomic revision of the Hypoxylaceae (Ascomycota, Xylariales) from the Yucatan Peninsula biotic province, Mexico
A taxonomic revision of the Hypoxylaceae family, comprising 75 species recorded from Mexico, reveals that 48 are found on the Yucatan Peninsula. This biotic province is notable for its high fungal diversity due to its unique biogeographic history. Researchers conducted seven expeditions across various vegetation types, including tropical deciduous forests, evergreen forests, and coastal dunes, within key areas such as Cuxtal Ecological Reserve, Ría Celestún Biosphere Reserve, and Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Morphological identification of specimens led to the creation of a taxonomic key for genus and species. Two species, Hypomontagnella monticulosa and Daldinia eschscholtzii, were found to have wide distribution across this region.
Unstructured spatial gradients in anthropogenic landscapes drive contrasting rodent and bat metacommunities, underscoring the need for multiscale conservation planning
Anthropogenic disturbances create unstructured spatial gradients that reshape metacommunity structures, with rodents and bats exhibiting contrasting responses. This study reveals high beta diversity driven by species turnover, where rodents follow a Gleasonian structure influenced by local habitat attributes, while bats show a quasi-Clementsian pattern, primarily structured by landscape-scale variables. Herbivorous and animalivorous bats respond differently to these gradients, highlighting the need for multiscale conservation planning. The findings underscore the importance of preserving diverse patches and secondary forests to maintain biodiversity resilience in Neotropical forests.
In search of the serpent kings: From Dzibanche to Calakmul
A significant shift in the capital of the Classic Maya 'Snake' kingdom from Dzibanche to Calakmul around 700 AD is revealed, challenging previous assumptions about political transitions. This study reconstructs the elusive sequence of kings during this transitional period by integrating epigraphic and archaeological evidence from across the southern Maya Lowlands. The research highlights that understanding such complex historical shifts requires interdisciplinary collaboration and synthesis of diverse data sources, offering a more nuanced portrait of the serpent kingdom's evolution.
New records of the Yucatecan Dwarf Short-tailed Snake, (Tantillita canula) Cope 1875 (Squamata: Colubridae), in Southern Mexico
Researchers document the first recorded presence of the Yucatecan Dwarf Short-tailed Snake (Tantillita canula) within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, expanding its known range in Mexico. This small, secretive snake (SVL 145 mm) was observed crossing a trail during a nocturnal herpetofaunal survey, providing critical field data for a species with poorly understood ecology. The discovery also includes the first record of T. canula from Tabasco state, further clarifying its distribution within the Yucatán Peninsula Biogeographic Province. The study employed photographic documentation and voucher specimen deposition to validate observations, contributing to conservation efforts for this endemic reptile.
Occupancy, relative abundance and activity patterns of three sympatric deer in ponds of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Campeche
A nine-year camera-trapping study in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, reveals distinct occupancy, abundance, and activity patterns among three sympatric deer species: white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Yucatán brown brocket deer (O. pandora), and Central American red brocket deer (Mazama temama). White-tailed deer were the most abundant but exhibited low pond occupancy with high colonization probability, while brown brocket deer showed the highest occupancy despite lower abundance. Red brocket deer had the lowest occupancy and abundance. Activity patterns varied, with diurnal activity in Odocoileus species and cathemeral (day-night) activity in Mazama. Ponds serve as critical semi-perennial water sources, food, and shelter for these species, emphasizing their importance for conservation efforts in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Standard deviation: Standardized bat monitoring techniques work better in some ecosystems
Standardized bat monitoring techniques, while effective in some ecosystems, significantly underperform in others due to local environmental and landscape factors. A study comparing mist-netting surveys in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR), a Mexican tropical forest, and Krka National Park (KNP), a Croatian Mediterranean scrubland, found that CBR's standardized surveys detected 69.8% of the known bat species assemblage compared to just 8.3% in KNP. Targeted surveys in KNP, focusing on peak bat activity periods and high-value sites, were necessary to achieve meaningful capture rates. The research highlights the importance of adapting monitoring strategies to local conditions, challenging the one-size-fits-all approach in ecological studies.
Differential utilization of surface and arboreal water bodies by birds and mammals in a seasonally dry Neotropical forest in southern Mexico
Research at the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve reveals that birds and mammals utilize different water sources—surface water bodies (waterholes, rock pools) and arboreal tree holes—differentially, with surface water being more diverse for both groups. While bird diversity remained consistent across water types, terrestrial mammals preferred surface water, while arboreal species favored tree holes. This segregation suggests that varied water body characteristics may promote species coexistence and resilience to environmental fluctuations. The study used camera traps to document animal behavior at 64 sites during dry and rainy seasons, offering insights into how human water demand and climate change could impact wildlife viability in seasonally dry tropical forests.
Linking Anthropogenic Landscape Perturbation to Herbivory and Pathogen Leaf Damage in Tropical Tree Communities
Anthropogenic disturbances in tropical forests, such as fragmentation and habitat loss, significantly alter multitrophic interactions, including herbivory and pathogen dynamics. A study at Calakmul, Mexico, revealed that generalist herbivores, particularly larger and more mobile species, are highly sensitive to landscape configuration changes, while specialized herbivores with limited dispersal capacity are more influenced by vegetation composition. Additionally, herbivore-induced foliar damage emerged as a critical factor in the incidence of plant pathogens, suggesting that these insects may act as vectors or facilitate pathogen entry. Pathogen symptoms like anthracnose and black spots were more prevalent in fragmented landscapes with smaller patches and higher edge density, indicating potential adverse effects on plant health and productivity. This pioneering research provides key insights into how tropical forest fragmentation can disrupt specialized plant-herbivore interactions and exacerbate the proliferation of generalist herbivores and certain pathogen symptoms.
Neo‐tropical felid activity patterns in relation to potential prey and intraguild competitors in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
A study in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, reveals that temporal segregation is unlikely to be a key mechanism for coexistence among jaguars, pumas, and ocelots. Researchers used camera traps from February to August 2019 to analyze activity patterns of these felids and their shared prey. While all three species exhibited nocturnal activity, pumas showed slightly higher activity near dawn. Jaguars had low overlap with potential prey species, whereas ocelots displayed high overlap. Pumas demonstrated finer-scale similarities in activity with common prey. The findings suggest that spatio-temporal avoidance and dietary differences may play more significant roles in their coexistence. This research contributes to understanding the dynamics of threatened felids in a critical conservation area.
Detection of Maya Sacbeob (Sacbes) Using Optical and Sar Imagery in Northern Petén, Mexico
Radar imagery proves effective in penetrating dense forest cover to identify and document ancient Maya sacbeob (roads), offering a cost-effective alternative to LiDAR for large-scale mapping. This study connected previously mapped sacbeob between Calakmul, El Mirador, and Uxul using Landsat-7, Landsat-8 optical images, and Sentinel-1 C-VH&VV, Alos-1 PalSAR L-HH&HV radar data, building on earlier work with Landsat-5 TM imagery. The findings highlight the potential of remote sensing to revolutionize ground surveys in inaccessible or densely forested regions, providing a foundation for targeted verification and preservation efforts.
Herpetological diversity in Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico: species list with new distribution notes
A recent study has revealed that the herpetological diversity in Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico, is part of one of the richest assemblages in the Americas. The research provides a comprehensive species list with new distribution notes, contributing significantly to our understanding of amphibian and reptile biodiversity in this UNESCO World Heritage Site. The study employed field surveys and data compilation to document 208 species, including several with previously unknown distributions. This finding underscores the importance of Calakmul's protected tropical forests as a critical habitat for herpetofaunal diversity.
Hunting and water scarcity affect habitat occupancy by peccaries (Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu) in Calakmul, Mexico
Hunting and water scarcity significantly impact the habitat occupancy of white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) and collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Research found that white-lipped peccary occupancy is influenced by habitat type and predators during the rainy season but is more vulnerable to hunting and water availability during the dry season. Conversely, collared peccaries are affected by water scarcity and hunting in the rainy season, while habitat type and predator presence influence their occupancy in the dry season. The study used stratified sampling with camera traps and 20 m² plots to detect feces or footprints across 28 points during both seasons, analyzing data via PRESENCE software to model habitat occupancy. These findings highlight the critical role of water availability and hunting pressure on peccary populations, particularly in drought-prone periods, underscoring the need for conservation strategies that address these threats.
Impact of Productive Activities on Forest Cover Change in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve Region: Evidence and Research Gaps
Deforestation remains the dominant forest cover change process in Mexico's Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, driven primarily by traditional agriculture initially and later by intensified livestock and conventional farming. However, other significant processes like forest degradation from fallow shortening and selective logging, as well as recovery through long fallows and core zone delimitation, are often overlooked in regional-scale assessments. A systematic review of 53 studies revealed that while deforestation is the most investigated process, there's a notable gap in research on sustainable initiatives' impact. The study highlights the need for local-level understanding to differentiate between temporary and long-term forest dynamics, emphasizing the importance of supporting reduced-impact logging, sustainable agriculture, improved fallows, and beekeeping with adequate monetary resources to ensure resilient growth.
LiDAR analyses in the contiguous Mirador-Calakmul Karst Basin, Guatemala: an introduction to new perspectives on regional early Maya socioeconomic and political organization
A groundbreaking LiDAR analysis of the Mirador-Calakmul Karst Basin (MCKB) in northern Guatemala has revealed a vast network of Preclassic Maya settlements, connected by 177 km of elevated causeways. The study identified over 775 ancient Maya sites within the MCKB and an additional 189 in the surrounding karstic ridge, condensed into 417 cities, towns, and villages across six preliminary tiers based on size and architectural complexity. Many of these sites date to the Middle and Late Preclassic periods (ca. 1000 BCE–AD 150), suggesting sophisticated centralized administrative and socio-economic strategies in early Maya societies. The presence of monumental architecture, consistent construction formats, water management systems, and extensive causeways indicates significant labor investments and governance capabilities that challenge previous understandings of Preclassic Maya political organization.
Perception of ranchers about the predator attack insurance in the Calakmul region, Campeche, Mexico
Ranchers in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, face significant challenges from predator attacks, yet only 27% report these incidents to the Predator Attacks Insurance (SAD) and receive compensation. Despite 88% of ranchers receiving immediate responses from SAD technicians, perceptions of its effectiveness vary widely: 56% view it positively, while 13% believe it offers no benefit. The study highlights a critical gap in reporting, as many ranchers resort to illegal hunting of predators due to dissatisfaction with the insurance system. Conducted through surveys across 18 communities from October 2019 to January 2020, this research underscores the need for improved predator management strategies and stronger incentives for reporting attacks to mitigate illegal practices.
Registros destacados de Spilogale angustifrons en la Reserva de la Biosfera Calakmul
Researchers document the first significant records of Spilogale angustifrons, a small carnivore, within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico. Through 9000 camera-trap nights across four stations, they captured 18 photographs representing 15 independent events, revealing solitary male behavior and potential habitat use around artificial water sources. These findings expand the known distribution of S. angustifrons in the Yucatán Peninsula, suggesting its ecological role may be understudied due to limited surveys. The study highlights gaps in population and ecological data, emphasizing the need for targeted research to assess this species' conservation status within the UNESCO-listed site.
Seed dispersal by spider monkeys in logged and unlogged sites in the Calakmul tropical humid forest, Mexico / Dispersión de semillas por monos araña en sitios talados y no talados en el bosque húmedo tropical de Calakmul, México
Selective logging does not limit seed dispersal by spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis), potentially aiding the recovery of managed forests. Researchers found that while unlogged sites had 2.2 times more seeds deposited under sleeping trees, logged areas saw 2.3 times more scattered seed dispersal, with most seeds remaining undamaged in both conditions. The study, conducted over five months in Calakmul's tropical humid forest, Mexico, analyzed 15,853 seeds from 20 species found in monkey feces and latrines. Despite similar use of sleeping trees (4.5 ± 4.3 weeks), the findings suggest that primate-mediated seed dispersal persists even in logged forests, offering insights into the resilience of tropical ecosystems under selective logging.
Waterhole use and diel activity pattern of ocelots in Calakmul rainforest, Mexico
Ocelots in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, exhibit a predominantly nocturnal activity pattern but show slight adjustments based on extrinsic factors such as human presence. A study monitoring 11 waterholes from 2014 to 2017 identified 40 distinct ocelots, revealing that four waterholes were most critical for their use. These ocelots returned to the same waterhole every 19 days on average and displayed a bimodal activity pattern that remained consistent across various conditions, including proximity to roads and seasonality. Notably, ocelots were more diurnal in waterholes farther from roads, suggesting an influence of human intensity on their behavior. This research underscores the importance of conserving all waterholes, particularly those near human infrastructure, for the survival and well-being of ocelot populations.
Baird´s tapir: predicting patterns of crop damage surrounding the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Campeche, Mexico
A study reveals that Baird's tapirs, despite causing minimal crop damage overall, significantly impact bean crops in rural communities surrounding the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. The research found that 14% of crops across four communities were damaged by tapirs, with the number of farmers cultivating beans being the strongest predictor of damage. The study analyzed ecological and agricultural variables, including habitat characteristics and crop protection measures, using transects and questionnaires. Findings highlight the interaction between farmers and tapirs, offering insights that could mitigate human-wildlife conflict in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Camera trapping reveals multispecies use of water‐filled tree holes by birds and mammals in a neotropical forest
A study employing camera traps in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, uncovered that water-filled tree holes (dendrotelmata) serve as critical resources for 21 bird and 9 mammal species. These species utilize dendrotelmata primarily for foraging and drinking, with a notable increase in drinking behavior among birds during the dry season. The study highlights the multifaceted use of these natural water sources across different seasons, providing insights into the ecological significance of dendrotelmata in neotropical forests.
Geomorphology of the Mirador-Calakmul Karst Basin: A GIS-based approach to hydrogeologic mapping
A comprehensive geomorphological study of the Mirador-Calakmul Karst Basin, spanning Guatemala and Mexico, reveals its complex hydrologic features and subsurface flow patterns. Using advanced remote sensing techniques—including orthophotographs, satellite DEMs, multispectral images, and LiDAR data—the research maps five distinct karst landscapes, dominated by fluviokarst valleys, and identifies critical hydrologic elements such as seasonal swamps, dolines, intermittent lakes, and springs. The study delineates the basin's boundaries through spatial analysis of karst valleys, spring lines, and surface drainage, while thin section analysis confirms the lithological composition of the upper Buena Vista Formation. A regional groundwater map illustrates east-to-west subsurface flow, providing insights into the geomorphological context that supported the ancient Maya civilization during the Middle and Late Preclassic periods (1000 BCE–150 CE).
Human-wildlife conflicts and drought in the greater Calakmul Region, Mexico: implications for tapir conservation
Increased water scarcity due to drought is driving Baird’s tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) into human-populated areas within the Greater Calakmul Region of southeastern Mexico, heightening human-tapir conflicts. Despite no direct correlation between annual precipitation and tapir sightings over an 11-year period (2008–2019), tapir incursions spiked in 2019, a year marked by the lowest rainfall (626.6 mm) in the past decade. Tapirs were the most frequently observed species at waterholes and apiaries, suggesting intensified competition for limited resources. Community-based monitoring from 2016 to 2018 further documented these conflicts, emphasizing the need for alternative water sources to mitigate threats to tapir conservation and broader wildlife viability in drought-prone regions.
Monitoring of small rock pools reveals differential effects of chronic anthropogenic disturbance on birds and mammals in the Calakmul region, southern Mexico
Chronic anthropogenic disturbance significantly alters species diversity, composition, and behavior of medium and large-sized birds and mammals in the Calakmul region, despite extensive forest cover. While bird diversity was higher outside the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR), mammal diversity thrived within it. Daily activity patterns also differed markedly between the two groups, with mammals showing stronger contrasts than birds. The study leveraged camera trapping records from small rock pools—habitats that concentrate vertebrate activity due to water scarcity—to assess these impacts. This approach reveals that even low-intensity disturbances can have pervasive effects on wildlife, underscoring the need for targeted conservation strategies.
Spider monkey use of natural and artificial terrestrial water sources in Calakmul, Mexico
Research in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Calakmul, Mexico, reveals that Geoffroy’s spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) increasingly rely on terrestrial water sources during the rainy season, particularly when large predators are absent. Camera-trapping recorded 25 instances where adult males used natural and artificial ground water, suggesting habitat disruptions—such as climate change or selective logging—may drive this behavior. The study highlights how environmental changes can alter the water-seeking patterns of arboreal species, offering insights into their adaptability and ecological dynamics.
Subsistence Hunting During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of the White-Tailed Deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) in Rural Communities of Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico
Subsistence hunting of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in rural communities near Calakmul, Mexico, doubled during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to pre-pandemic levels. The study, based on ethnographic data and hunting records from three communities, found that 26 deer were harvested in one trimester (July-September 2020), yielding 923 kg of game biomass, with most hunters operating alone and engaging in daily or near-daily hunting activities. Hunting primarily occurred at night, using stalking and opportunistic methods close to communities. The research underscores the need for expanded monitoring of subsistence hunting on key species to ensure sustainable wildlife conservation in this critical Mesoamerican region.
(Dis)agreements in the management of conservation conflicts in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
A shared understanding of conservation conflicts does not guarantee their resolution, particularly when solutions require actions beyond the scope of stakeholders' roles. This key insight emerges from a study examining conflict management within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, where imposed biosphere reserves often lead to local impairment due to exclusionary practices. Researchers used semi-structured and in-depth interviews with two communities to explore whether a shared understanding facilitates conflict resolution. While such an understanding aids the broader process of conflict management, it is insufficient when conflicts demand actions that exceed stakeholders' functional capacities. The study highlights the need for addressing structural challenges within protected areas to effectively resolve conservation disputes.
Aj atz'aam, "los de la sal". El uso de la sal en la ciudad maya de Calakmul
Archaeological evidence from Calakmul reveals that the ancient Maya city engaged in long-distance trade to procure salt, a critical resource absent locally. This study highlights the importance of salt in Maya society during the late Classic period (600–900 CE), demonstrating its role as an indicator of extensive exchange networks. Unlike previous research focused on elite goods, this analysis examines mural paintings and other artifacts to reconstruct salt's economic significance, emphasizing its necessity for human consumption and the logistical challenges of transporting it over vast distances. The findings underscore the sophistication of Maya trade systems and their adaptability in sustaining urban populations.
An Approach to Identify and Understand the Main Processes of Weathering that Affect the Pre‐Hispanic STELAE Located in the CALAKMUL Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico
Researchers identified key weathering processes affecting pre-Hispanic stelae at Oxpemul, within Mexico's Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. The study found that dissolution of carbonates from limestone and their recrystallization, along with silicate hydrolysis forming montmorillonite and biodeterioration reactions producing oxalate crystals, are the primary drivers of stela degradation. Using ion chromatography and X-ray diffraction (XRD) on in situ samples, the team analyzed four stelae to map these processes, revealing how environmental factors contribute to the erosion of Mayan epigraphic records. This pioneering study provides critical insights for developing conservation strategies to preserve these cultural vestiges.
CHAPTER 4. Maya Mural Paintings in Calakmul: Pictorial Technique and Conservation
Nanoparticle-based consolidation using alkaline earth hydroxides (calcium hydroxide and barium hydroxide) successfully stabilized sulfate-polluted Maya mural paintings at Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico. This innovative approach demonstrated long-term re-adhesion of flaking painted layers while maintaining compatibility with the original lime-based painting technique. The study highlights the effectiveness of nanoparticle dispersions in preserving fragile artistic substrates under challenging subtropical climate conditions, offering a sustainable solution for conserving cultural heritage without compromising physicochemical properties.
Distribución potencial actual y futura e identificación de áreas aptas para la conservación de Cedrela odorata L. en la península de Yucatán
Climate change threatens to reduce the suitable habitat for red cedar (Cedrela odorata L.) by 31–44.8% across the Yucatán Peninsula, but protected areas like Calakmul, Los Petenes, and Ría Celestún could serve as climate refuges, conserving approximately 76,472 hectares of critical habitat. Researchers used MaxEnt modeling with current and future climate scenarios to identify high-potential regions for seed production and conservation. Key environmental variables—such as vegetation type, precipitation patterns, soil conditions, temperature, and slope—significantly influenced the species' distribution. This study highlights the importance of protected areas in mitigating climate-driven habitat loss and supports targeted conservation strategies.
Diversidad alfa, beta y co-ocurrencia de especies de flebotomineos (Diptera: Psychodidae) en Calakmul, Campeche, México
This study reports two new species records for Campeche, Mexico: Micropygomyia (Micropygomyia) cayennensis maciasi and Dampfomyia (Coromyia) steatopyga, expanding the known diversity of flebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Calakmul. Analyzing data from seven localities collected between 2001 and 2007, researchers found significant variation in alpha (within-site) and beta (between-site) diversity, with Dos Lagunas Sur and La Guadalupe exhibiting the highest species richness. While co-occurrence analysis did not reveal meaningful patterns among species, the study highlights the utility of biodiversity estimators like Q for assessing community structure without bias from abundant or rare species. These findings contribute to understanding the ecological dynamics of flebotomine populations, which are vectors for leishmaniasis—a major health concern in Mexico.
First documented predation of a Baird’s tapir by a jaguar in the Calakmul region, Mexico
Researchers document the first confirmed case of jaguar predation on a Baird’s tapir, distinguishing it from scavenging. In August 2017, a jaguar was observed feeding on a juvenile female tapir in Calakmul, Mexico, with skull analysis revealing the characteristic 'lethal bite' used by jaguars to kill prey. This finding provides critical evidence of jaguar predation behavior, particularly targeting vulnerable tapirs, and contributes to understanding the ecological dynamics between these apex predators and their prey in Mesoamerican forests.
Jaguars and Roads in the Calakmul Region: Evidence of Road Crossing and Collisions with Vehicles
A study in the Calakmul region of Mexico revealed that jaguars (Panthera onca) cross Federal Highway 186, a major road threatening their population. Camera traps captured images of two male jaguars crossing the highway in 2019, with one later found dead after a vehicle collision in 2020. These findings align with earlier landscape models predicting jaguar crossing sites and highlight the need for wildlife-safe infrastructure to mitigate road-related mortality risks.
Living Smallholder Vulnerability: The Everyday Experience of Climate Change in Calakmul, Mexico
Smallholder farming communities in Calakmul, Mexico, experience climate change vulnerability distinctly based on individual circumstances, challenging the assumption of homogeneity in policy discussions. Residents report varied coping strategies, often requiring cash inputs, but note that climate change also restricts traditional income sources like agricultural wage labor. This study, based on 98 interviews conducted between 2013 and 2016, reveals how community status, resource access, and livelihood variations shape perceived vulnerabilities, highlighting the nuanced impacts of climate change on daily lives.
Moon light and the activity patterns of Baird’s tapir in the Calakmul region, Southern México
Baird’s tapir (Tapirella bairdii), an endangered Neotropical ungulate, exhibits a trend toward heightened activity during dark moon phases, particularly in areas with greater human disturbance. This behavior may reflect avoidance of light exposure due to anthropogenic perturbations, though the differences between dark and light phases were not statistically significant. Researchers analyzed 18 months of camera-trap data from two sites—Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR) and Nuevo Becal (NB)—monitoring waterbodies to assess tapir activity patterns relative to lunar cycles. While tapirs showed peak activity at night and dawn, the study suggests that human influence in NB may alter their behavior, with tapirs being more active during darker nights compared to CBR. These findings highlight the potential impact of disturbance on species behavior and underscore the need for further research to confirm such patterns.
Morelet’s crocodile predation by jaguar in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in southeastern México
Researchers document the first photographic evidence of jaguar (Panthera onca) predation on Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus moreletti) within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in southeastern Mexico. This discovery expands the known diet of jaguars, which, while extensively studied, had not previously been observed preying on crocodiles. The study relied on photographic evidence to confirm this predatory behavior, contributing new insights into the ecological dynamics of this apex predator and its interactions with reptilian species in tropical forest ecosystems.
Peccaries and their relationship with water availability and their predators in Calakmul, México
Climate change-driven reductions in rainfall and increased drought periods have significantly impacted water availability in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, threatening the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), a key species in Mesoamerica. A five-year study using photo-trapping techniques found that the abundance of white-lipped peccaries and jaguars is directly linked to decreasing water availability in ponds ('aguadas'), while collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) and pumas remain unaffected by water scarcity. This suggests that white-lipped peccaries, already vulnerable due to hunting and habitat fragmentation, face heightened extinction risks as droughts worsen. The study highlights the critical role of water availability in shaping predator-prey dynamics in tropical forests.
Registro del coyote (Carnivora: Canidae) en la Reserva la Biosfera de Calakmul, México
Researchers documented the first confirmed presence of coyotes (Canis latrans) in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, marking a significant range expansion for this species into tropical regions. Using camera trapping from December 2018 to June 2019, three distinct photographs were captured in the reserve's core southern zone, providing empirical evidence of coyote activity in this UNESCO-listed site. The study highlights the adaptability of coyotes to diverse ecosystems and underscores the need for further monitoring to assess potential ecological impacts on native species.
Using local actors’ perceptions to evaluate a conservation tool: the case of the Mexican compensation scheme for predation in Calakmul
A compensation scheme for carnivore depredation on livestock in Calakmul, Mexico, shows that while three-quarters of livestock producers are aware of the scheme, only half understand its functionality. Satisfaction with the scheme's operation is linked to ease of contacting staff, whereas satisfaction with results depends on trust in staff. This insight was derived from a research-action approach involving 165 questionnaires and participatory workshops, which revealed key criteria for local actors' evaluations. Recommendations include targeting information to areas where awareness is low and vulnerability to predation is high.
Uso de bebederos artificiales por el sereque centroamericano (Dasyprocta punctata) en la reserva de la biosfera de Calakmul, México
Artificial water troughs effectively mitigate the impact of water scarcity on wildlife during dry seasons, particularly benefiting the Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata). A study in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, found that these troughs were consistently used by agoutis and other mammals and birds, with a relative abundance of 160.08±85.44 individuals recorded over 1121 days of monitoring during the dry season of 2019. The research employed camera traps to estimate abundance and activity patterns, revealing primarily diurnal visits. This approach provides insights into habitat modification strategies in protected areas, demonstrating that artificial water sources can support biodiversity even under drought conditions.
Water Scarcity and Agricultural and Conservation Policies: Old and New Challenges for Mexican Smallholder Maize Production in the Protected Forests of the Mexico-Guatemala Border
Agricultural and climate policies, not conservation priorities, are the dominant drivers of smallholder maize production changes in Calakmul, Mexico. Despite slightly positive rainfall trends, increased intensity and delayed onset of precipitation events, coupled with shifting agricultural policies, have led to intensified production on smaller areas, shorter fallow periods, and greater reliance on subsidies and inputs. The study, based on 40 semi-structured interviews with stakeholders and quantitative precipitation analysis, reveals that successful conservation measures in this UNESCO World Heritage Site must align with agricultural and climate change policies to effectively address water scarcity challenges.
Gendered livelihoods and the politics of socio-environmental identity: women's participation in conservation projects in Calakmul, Mexico
Women's participation in conservation projects within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, reveals that gendered livelihood strategies are shaped by household and community negotiations, responding to specific opportunities and constraints. These strategies encompass both material and ideological dimensions, highlighting the complex interplay between socio-environmental identity and sustainable livelihoods. The study employs participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methodologies, including group histories and visual evidence from women's agricultural organizations, to illustrate these dynamics. This research underscores the importance of recognizing gendered perspectives in conservation efforts to foster more inclusive and effective sustainable development practices.
Labour Migration and Gendered Agricultural Relations: The Feminization of Agriculture in the Ejidal Sector of Calakmul, Mexico
Male labor migration to the United States has significantly reshaped agricultural dynamics and gender roles in the ejidal sector of Calakmul, Mexico. Research reveals that while men's out-migration increases women's participation in farm labor, it also alters land tenure, decision-making, and management of hired labor, highlighting a 'feminization' of agriculture with nuanced impacts on local production relations. The study, based on a 2007 survey of 155 households across six ejidos and ethnographic fieldwork, underscores the need to distinguish between farm labor and management in semi-subsistence systems. Findings suggest that migration-driven gender shifts in agricultural roles are both substantial and context-specific, offering insights into the broader implications of rural out-migration on smallholder livelihoods.
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