Publications
Long-term adaptation pathways for Venice and its lagoon under sea-level rise
Under current greenhouse gas mitigation policies, Venice and its lagoon are likely to face hard limits within the 21st century due to sea-level rise (SLR). The study maps long-term adaptation pathways, revealing that the current strategy of mobile barriers and accommodation measures will become unsustainable. Alternative strategies, such as ring-dikes or permanent coastal dams, could preserve different combinations of environmental, heritage, and socio-cultural values but entail significant ecological and social transitions. Under extreme SLR scenarios, including potential Antarctic ice-sheet collapse, relocation of monuments or abandonment may become unavoidable by the 22nd century. Rapid mitigation could still prevent these drastic outcomes.
The Venice Charter sixty years on: legacy, relevance and new heritage challenges
The Venice Charter, adopted by ICOMOS in 1964, remains a cornerstone in heritage conservation despite the emergence of new challenges such as mass tourism, digital transformation, and shifting cultural dynamics. While its principles continue to guide global heritage safeguarding efforts, contemporary pressures question its adequacy in addressing modern dilemmas. This special issue of Conservar Património critically examines the Charter's legacy, proposing reforms to align it with 21st-century demands, including a focus on human and non-human wellbeing, urban cultural values, and co-production of knowledge between stakeholders. Contributions explore innovative frameworks for heritage management, such as integrating Vitruvian criteria into religious monument preservation, signaling potential paradigm shifts in European heritage conservation.
La gestione di Venezia come sito UNESCO
Overtourism poses a structural threat to UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as demonstrated by the case of Venice and its Lagoon. The study reveals that international recognition, while intended to protect cultural heritage, can paradoxically increase vulnerability due to overcrowding, infrastructure strain, and loss of authenticity. Analyzing management dynamics from 1966 to 2023, this research highlights a disconnect between conservation goals and governance practices, driven by competing public and private interests. The findings underscore the fragility of the UNESCO system when faced with pressures that prioritize exploitation over heritage preservation.
Multi-Temporal Relative Sea Level Rise Scenarios up to 2150 for the Venice Lagoon (Italy)
By 2150, the Venice Lagoon could face severe flooding under high-emission scenarios, with up to 65% of its land area at risk. This study projects relative sea level rise (RSLR) using geodetic data and climate models from the IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report, revealing that extreme water levels could temporarily reach 3.47 meters above current levels. The research integrates GNSS and InSAR data to analyze vertical land movements (VLM), showing rates of 1–3 mm/year with peaks up to 7 mm/year, which significantly influence RSLR across the lagoon. Projections indicate that over 112 km² could be flooded under a low-emission scenario, while a high-emission scenario risks 139 km². These findings challenge the long-term viability of the MoSE barrier system, designed to protect against tides and storm surges up to 3 meters, which may be submerged by 2100. The study underscores the urgent need for enhanced flood resilience strategies to safeguard Venice and its unique lagoon ecosystem.
Operational and Structural Solutions for a Sustainable Navigation in the Malamocco – Marghera Channel (Venice Lagoon)
A groundbreaking study has identified sustainable solutions to increase the navigational capacity of the Malamocco-Marghera Channel, a critical route in Venice Lagoon, while addressing erosion risks to surrounding tidal flats. The research, part of the CEF European-funded project 'Channeling the Green Deal for Venice,' combines advanced navigation and hydrodynamic/sediment transport models to ensure safe, environmentally friendly access to the port of Venice, respecting its UNESCO World Heritage status. This interdisciplinary approach, led by a consortium including DHI S.r.l., marks the first time such models have been integrated in real-time to optimize morphological and operational solutions for the lagoon.
The Anthropocene Waterscapes of Venice
Venice, Italy's iconic water city, serves as a paradigm for understanding the Anthropocene epoch, where human impact on Earth systems rivals natural forces. This interdisciplinary handbook examines the historical, political, and epistemological dimensions of this transformation, focusing on Venice's cultural-natural ecology. It integrates environmental humanities research, particularly hydrosociology, supported by UNESCO initiatives. The work explores the evolution of human-nature relationships from antiquity to modernity, comparing Venice with other water cities like Tenochtitlán and Bangkok. Key themes include the social underpinnings of science, eco-artistic movements, resistance to resource extractivism, and the fight for nature's rights against ecocide. Through comparative perspectives, it offers a nuanced view of humanity's ongoing geoanthropological influence on aquatic environments.
The Venice and its Lagoon UNESCO site (Italy): Cultural Heritage and Climate Change
Climate change poses significant risks to Venice's UNESCO-listed cultural heritage, with gradual shifts in temperature, precipitation, and humidity, as well as extreme events like floods and droughts, threatening the integrity of monumental structures. Research integrating studies from Iuav University of Venice, CORILA Venezia2021, and the Venice Climate Change Adaptation Plan identified critical vulnerabilities across macro morphological categories, including potential impacts from the MOSE flood barrier system. Analytical campaigns involving multiple laboratories developed targeted mitigation strategies to enhance resilience while ensuring material and formal compatibility with historic lagoon architecture. These actions aim to balance effectiveness with preservation, safeguarding Venice's unique cultural landscape against climate-induced damage.
The Wetland Contract as a Governance Tool to Manage Conflicts in the Venetian Lagoon
A novel governance approach, the Wetland Contract for the Northern Lagoon of Venice, demonstrates potential as a tool to reconcile competing priorities of socioeconomic development and biodiversity conservation. This participatory initiative brings together diverse stakeholders to commit to coordinated management, restoration, and protection of wetlands, addressing the complex challenges posed by climate change in this vulnerable UNESCO World Heritage Site. The contract serves as a living laboratory for testing innovative strategies that balance human needs with ecological preservation.
Assessing Microplastics and Nanoparticles in the Surface Seawater of Venice Lagoon—Part I: Methodology of Research
A novel methodology for detecting and measuring microplastics (MPs) and nanoparticles (NPs) in surface seawater was developed and applied to samples from Venice Lagoon, revealing significant pollution levels. The study identified MPs through optical microscopy, categorizing them by color, shape, and size classes down to 32 μm—critical sizes for marine organisms. Nanoparticle concentrations were estimated using Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, while a protocol minimizing non-plastic interference was proposed. Sampling focused on high-traffic areas like the Venice-Lido Port Inlet and Grand Canal under Rialto Bridge, highlighting potential environmental risks. This research, part of the H2020 In-No-Plastic project, underscores the need for coordinated mitigation strategies to address marine plastic pollution in UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Assessing the impact of the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi on artisanal fisheries in the Venice Lagoon: an interdisciplinary approach
Massive blooms of the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi (sea walnut) in Venice Lagoon have significantly disrupted artisanal fisheries, marking one of the first documented socioeconomic impacts of this species in the Mediterranean. Research combining fishers’ local knowledge, long-term landing data, and field sampling revealed that landings declined sharply during blooms, coinciding with rising water temperatures. The study also identified mechanical obstruction of fishing nets by ctenophores as a critical operational barrier. This interdisciplinary approach provides foundational evidence for short- and long-term ecological and socioeconomic consequences, offering actionable insights to inform mitigation strategies for vulnerable lagoon ecosystems.
Boon and burden: economic performance and future perspectives of the Venice flood protection system
A cost-benefit analysis reveals that the economic benefits of Venice's MoSE flood protection system significantly outweigh its operational costs, even under projected sea-level rise scenarios. However, increasing barrier closures due to rising water levels threaten the long-term viability of the infrastructure and may adversely affect the lagoon's ecosystem. The study suggests raising the official closure threshold from 110 cm and integrating additional safeguarding measures, such as sewer system improvements, to mitigate these risks. Researchers used a system dynamics model to simulate impacts on economic and residential activities in Venice and its port until 2100, considering two sea-level rise scenarios.
Contaminants of emerging concern in water and sediment of the Venice Lagoon, Italy
A first-of-its-kind study reveals widespread contamination of the Venice Lagoon by 20 emerging contaminants, including neonicotinoid insecticides (detected in 73–92% of water samples), UV filters, and pharmaceuticals like diclofenac. Sediment analysis highlighted persistent antioxidants and antibiotics, suggesting tributary rivers and treated wastewater as key emission sources. While no clear seasonal or spatial trends emerged, the findings underscore the need for targeted monitoring to prioritize contaminants and refine future conservation strategies for this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
From ‘Objects’ to ‘Sustainable Development’: The Evolution of Architectural Heritage Conservation in Theory and Practice
Architectural heritage conservation has shifted from a static, expert-driven approach focused on preserving the authenticity of individual monuments to a dynamic, multi-stakeholder process that integrates sustainable development. This evolution reflects changing socio-economic and environmental demands, recognizing heritage buildings' potential to enhance community resilience, decarbonization, and climate change awareness. The study analyzes conservation theories from five theorists and 23 charters, including the Venice Charter, tracing its transformation over the last century. It identifies four key phases in conservation philosophy: expert-led preservation of authenticity, protection of associated values with local consultation, democratic community engagement, and integration with sustainable development through multi-stakeholder collaboration.
Global Venice
Venice faces profound challenges due to globalization, particularly the dominance of mass tourism, which has transformed its economy into a 'tourism monoculture' and accelerated the conversion of residential spaces into short-term rentals. This shift, exacerbated by Venice's UNESCO World Heritage status, has deepened societal divisions, fostering localist reactions marked by xenophobia and racism against immigrants while widening the gap between the city and mainland. The study highlights the uncertain future of Venice amid rising sea levels, revealing a complex interplay between global pressures and localized responses that threaten its cultural and environmental integrity.
Mind the diversity: defining intervention concepts of built heritage in international doctrinal documents
International doctrinal documents on built heritage, such as those from UNESCO and ICOMOS, often define 'conservation' as an umbrella term encompassing other interventions, while 'preservation' is treated as a distinct concept aimed at maintaining the integrity of heritage sites. However, the study reveals that terms like 'repair,' 'restoration,' and 'reconstruction' are inconsistently defined, leading to divergent interpretations. Additionally, the expanding notion of 'use' in built heritage has introduced complexities, with terms like 'adaptation,' 'adaptive reuse,' and 'rehabilitation' being used interchangeably, blurring their definitions. This research systematically analyzes nine key doctrinal documents to clarify these intervention concepts, their relationships, and trends, advancing understanding in this field.
Multisensorial hydrography with Venetian depictions from 1880 to 1895
A novel approach to analyzing water in art, termed 'multisensorial hydrography,' reveals how 19th-century Venetian depictions by renowned and underappreciated French and Italian painters capture the lagoon's ecological and sensory complexity. This method, applied to four paintings from 1880 to 1895, offers a liquid attentiveness that bridges historical and contemporary understandings of Venice's artificiality and aquatic mobilities within the Mediterranean context. The study highlights the significance of Venice as a UNESCO World Heritage Site while engaging with global sustainability goals related to clean water and marine ecosystems.
Semantics-enriched spatiotemporal mapping of public risk perceptions for cultural heritage during radical events
A study reveals distinct spatiotemporal patterns of public risk perceptions on social media during Heritage-Related Events (HREs), using the 2019 Notre Dame fire and Venice flood as case studies. Analysis of Twitter data shows heightened online activity and emotional responses before, during, and after these events, with machine learning models identifying dominant topics and sentiments. The research highlights how public reactions vary based on event severity, offering insights for urban risk reduction and heritage management. This methodological framework also advances Geo-AI applications in spatiotemporal clustering.
Successes and failures
Heritage preservation, a global effort spanning two centuries, has achieved significant successes through international cooperation and policy integration. The World Heritage Convention, a key UNESCO initiative, has revitalized historic urban centers like Venice, Fès, and Havana by setting global policy frameworks and promoting good conservation practices. However, heritage faces growing threats from overtourism, unsustainable development, climate change, and politicization of historical narratives. These challenges highlight the need for balanced approaches to protect both cultural and natural heritage while addressing power imbalances and diverse historical perspectives.
The Stones of Venice
John Ruskin's seminal work, The Stones of Venice, offers a profound analysis of Venetian architecture through its three distinct historical periods: Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance. The study reveals how architectural elements—such as walls, arches, and buttresses—evolved in response to both aesthetic and structural demands. Ruskin dissects the material and ornamental treatment of buildings, from the intricate mosaics of St. Mark's Basilica to the grandeur of the Ducal Palace, illustrating the transition from Byzantine opulence to Gothic verticality and Renaissance symmetry. His approach combines meticulous observation with historical context, providing a foundational framework for understanding Venice’s architectural heritage as both an artistic achievement and a reflection of its cultural evolution.
The Venice Charter in the age of climate change
The Venice Charter, a foundational document for heritage conservation established in the 1960s, faces significant challenges in its applicability under modern climatic conditions. This study re-evaluates the Charter's principles and suggests adaptations to ensure its relevance in the 21st century. By contextualizing the Charter within historical and contemporary discourses on built heritage, the research highlights the need for updated guidelines that account for climate change impacts. The approach involves a reflective analysis of the Charter's original intent and its potential limitations in today's rapidly changing environment.
Venice
Venice stands as a testament to human adaptation and resilience against environmental challenges. This comprehensive study reveals how the city has evolved from its origins to the present, responding to geographic constraints, industrialization, and mass tourism while maintaining its unique cultural identity. The research highlights Venice's dramatic urban transformations, its shifting political roles—from a powerful city-state to an overseas empire—and its enduring impact on art, architecture, and music. By examining the lives of its diverse inhabitants, from nobles to commoners, Christians to Jews, the study offers a multifaceted perspective on how Venice has shaped and been shaped by its environment, providing critical insights into its vulnerability and future in the face of rising sea levels.
An Archipelago of Ecological Care Venice, its Lagoon and Contemporary Art
Venice and its lagoon exemplify local sustainability practices that can inspire global change, even amid climate uncertainty. The study highlights how small island communities, including Venice's inhabitants, blend vernacular knowledge with activism to foster ecological awareness. Through case studies of contemporary art projects—such as lagoon walks—the research demonstrates how art can drive 'curatorial activism,' protecting both human rights and the rights of nature. This approach encourages critical thinking, emotional engagement, and ethical responsibility, offering a model for collective action in the face of environmental crises.
Collective water transport electrification: Venetian ferry boat case study
A transition to electric propulsion for Venetian ferry boats could significantly decarbonize water transport in Venice, preserving air quality and the integrity of its UNESCO-listed monuments. This study identifies the optimal electric motor, battery pack, and charging system for such a shift, while also evaluating potential impacts on service delivery. By replacing thermal propulsion with low-emission electric alternatives, this approach offers a viable path to reduce environmental impact in one of Europe's most vulnerable urban ecosystems.
From Venice (Italy) to Jeonju (Korea): the art of gondola making, intangible cultural heritage
A prestigious recognition from South Korea highlights the enduring significance of gondola making as Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH). The Jeonju Government's JIAPICH award, awarded to Venice's ElFelze Association, underscores the global value of this ancient craftsmanship. This study explores the Korean system for preserving ICH, particularly focusing on 'living human treasures' and relevant legislation, offering a unique perspective on safeguarding traditional craftsmen and their daily practices. It reveals how international collaboration can foster the preservation and promotion of cultural heritage, demonstrating the resilience and quality of gondola making in Venice.
Geotechnics of Venice and Its Lagoon
Venice faces significant threats from tidal flooding due to the narrowing gap between land and sea levels, exacerbated by climate change-induced sea-level rise and subsidence. The historic city's preservation demands innovative geotechnical solutions, such as tilting gate foundations and drainage system improvements, particularly in vulnerable areas like Piazza San Marco. This work delves into the complex hydro-mechanical behavior of Venice's sensitive silts, offering a comprehensive analysis of environmental challenges and mitigation strategies essential for safeguarding this cultural heritage.
Insights on the Extreme Storm Surge Event of the 22 November 2022 in the Venice Lagoon
An extreme storm surge event on November 22, 2022, in the Venice Lagoon would have resulted in unprecedented flooding, with sea levels exceeding 200 cm above the reference datum at Chioggia if not for the intervention of the Mo.S.E. system—a set of artificial barriers designed to protect the lagoon from extreme high tides. This study highlights the critical role of advanced monitoring systems, such as those managed by ISPRA, in predicting and mitigating storm surges. Using hydrodynamic models forced with extensive observed data, researchers analyzed a hypothetical scenario where the Mo.S.E. system was not operational, demonstrating its effectiveness in preventing catastrophic flooding. The findings underscore the importance of coastal flood prevention measures, particularly in the context of rising sea levels, and emphasize the functionality and utility of real-time monitoring systems for managing such risks.
Is the future given? Cumulative impact of Climate change and MOSE closures on Venice and its lagoon.
A systematic analysis reveals that the MOSE flood barrier system, while effective at mitigating sea level rise impacts on Venice, significantly increases lagoon water renewal time and exacerbates temperature-related stresses under high-emission scenarios. Projections indicate that by 2100, under the RCP8.5 scenario, the lagoon could remain closed for about 260 days a year, with water temperatures exceeding 30°C for over four months, and more than 35% of the lagoon experiencing delayed water renewal beyond 20 days. However, these impacts are substantially less severe under the RCP4.5 scenario, highlighting the potential for combined global mitigation and local adaptation strategies to protect both Venice and its lagoon ecosystem. The study underscores the critical need for site-specific, carefully planned adaptation measures to safeguard this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Local People's Participation in Cultural Heritage Conservation and Management
Public participation is increasingly recognized as essential for sustainable cultural heritage conservation, particularly in UNESCO World Heritage Sites. A key insight from recent research is that effective engagement of local communities can enhance the value and preservation of heritage while addressing challenges in management and tourism. This study synthesizes international charters and documents, such as the Venice Charter and the Faro Convention, to highlight how participatory approaches shift focus from mere conservation to the societal benefits of heritage. It also integrates Human-Computer Interaction methodologies to propose innovative, people-centered strategies for heritage management. These findings underscore the need for inclusive practices that empower local stakeholders in decision-making processes.
Nonlinear Autoregressive Exogenous (NARX) Neural Network Models for Storm Tide Forecasting in the Venice Lagoon
A breakthrough in storm tide prediction for Venice and its lagoon has been achieved using Nonlinear Autoregressive Exogenous (NARX) neural network models. This advanced approach significantly enhances the accuracy of forecasting extreme high tides, which pose a persistent threat to this UNESCO World Heritage Site due to astronomical, meteorological, and basin-specific factors. The model's reliability makes it a valuable tool for managing the MOSE flood defense system, offering proactive protection against the damaging effects of storm surges that have historically plagued Venice. By leveraging neural network techniques, researchers have developed a robust framework capable of capturing the complex dynamics influencing tide levels, thereby improving preparedness and mitigating risks to this culturally significant urban landscape.
Roman ‘Well-cisterns’, Navigational Routes, and Landscape Modifications in the Venice Lagoon and Northeastern Adriatic
Underwater investigations in the Venice Lagoon have uncovered a partially preserved Roman 'well-cistern,' providing new evidence of ancient maritime infrastructure. This structure, similar to another better-preserved example found in the same region, was likely used to supply ships with fresh water along the North Adriatic littoral. Analysis of mortar, depth relative to sea level, and the absence of foundation poles in underlying soft mud supported this interpretation. The study also suggests that such structures were repurposed during the Middle Ages for residential use in Venice's islands, becoming a hallmark of its small squares (campi). By comparing these findings with other poorly studied Roman buildings, researchers offer insights into ancient navigational routes and landscape modifications in the region.
Screening the stones of Venice: Mapping social perceptions of cultural significance through graph-based semi-supervised classification
A novel approach using graph-based semi-supervised learning with graph neural networks (GNN) successfully mapped social perceptions of cultural significance across Venice. The method integrated multi-modal data—including visual and textual content from social media—and contextual connections such as spatial, temporal, and social factors into an attributed multi-graph structure. By training multiple GNN models as an ensemble, the study achieved high confidence in classifying cultural significance categories, which were then spatially mapped using message diffusion techniques on graphs. This framework not only provides a socially inclusive tool for heritage management but also demonstrates potential for broader applications in urban analysis, such as measuring safety, vitality, or popularity of spaces.
Sustainability threshold for multiple ecosystem services in the Venice lagoon, Italy
Approximately 53% of the Venice lagoon's surface is exploited beyond a proposed 'sustainability threshold,' indicating unsustainable conditions that threaten its capacity to provide ecosystem services. This finding highlights the need for intervention to alter patterns of ecosystem service (ES) use and promote long-term sustainability. The study introduces a novel approach to analyze ES bundles, determining their degree of sustainability based on balances between ES capacity and flow, as well as between regulating ES and those mediated by human activities. Using multivariate analysis on spatially explicit ES maps, the research derives a zonation reflecting different ES bundles, offering potential directions for more sustainable management of this critical social-ecological system.
The Impact of Nanoparticles Implementation on Conservation of Heritage Buildings (Overview the Nanocathedral Project)
Nanotechnology offers promising solutions for the conservation of heritage buildings, as demonstrated by the Nanocathedral Project. The study developed nanomaterials tailored to different stone types—such as limestones, sandstones, and marbles—used in five medieval cathedrals and a contemporary opera theater across Western Europe. These materials were designed to address specific preservation challenges while maintaining the originality of building materials. By analyzing porosity, mineralogical composition, and chemical characteristics, researchers created effective consolidants that extend the lifespan of heritage structures under diverse environmental conditions. The project aligns with the Venice Charter's emphasis on using advanced scientific methods for monument conservation.
The paradoxical need for human intervention in the conservation of natural environments in Venice lagoon
Human intervention is crucial for maintaining the ecological functions and landscape diversity of Venice's lagoon, particularly within its 31 'valli da pesca'—artificial ecosystems designed to mimic transitional aquatic environments. Despite their origins as tools for maximizing provisioning ecosystem services like fishing and hunting, these valli have evolved under diverse management strategies that influence both their ecological outputs and landscape patterns. Research comparing managed and abandoned valli reveals that active management preserves essential ecological gradients and heterogeneity while supporting a balanced flow of provisioning and cultural ecosystem services. Abandoned valli, though more productive per unit area for provisioning services, lose critical ecological functions and landscape complexity. This study underscores the paradoxical need for anthropogenic intervention to sustain the unique ecological and cultural value of these lagoon ecosystems, offering insights for their long-term conservation.
We Made It in Venice! But Then …? Reversing Notions of Center and Periphery
This study critically examines the evolving role of the Venice Biennale as a global art institution, questioning its traditional dominance and commercialization. It highlights how the 59th Biennale, under artistic director Cecilia Alemani's theme 'The Milk of Dreams,' challenged Eurocentric narratives by centering marginalized voices, particularly those of African artists and women. The research explores the impact of gallery-driven commercialism on artistic recognition, contrasting it with efforts towards decolonization and cultural restitution, exemplified by Benin's recent strides in art politics. It argues for a re-evaluation of the Biennale's significance as an 'obligatory passage point' for international success, advocating for more inclusive, locally driven cultural initiatives.
Cultural Encounter, Race, and a Humanist Ideology of Empire in the Art of Trecento Venice
This study reveals that the art of Trecento Venice, particularly in official settings like San Marco and the Palazzo Ducale, employed visual techniques to racialize and differentiate between groups, reflecting a complex interplay of cultural encounter, humanist ideology, and colonial aspirations. The research challenges the traditional triumphal narrative by analyzing mosaics, sculptures, and manuscripts through the lens of early Italian humanism and premodern race theories. Key findings include the use of physiognomy, skin color, and dress to construct racial hierarchies, often justified by religious difference and environmental determinism. These visual representations not only promoted a universal Christian empire but also underpinned harmful practices such as enslavement and legal exclusions.
Environmental DNA metabarcoding reveals spatial and seasonal patterns in the fish community in the Venice Lagoon
A groundbreaking study using environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding has uncovered spatial and seasonal patterns in the fish community of the Venice Lagoon. The research identified 62 fish taxa from 17 water samples collected over 12 months at two distinct sites, revealing clear differences between the freshwater-associated internal lagoon and the sea-associated external lagoon. Notably, the study detected the first occurrence of Oceanic puffer (Lagocephalus lagocephalus) DNA in the Venice Lagoon, suggesting a northward expansion of this species in the high Adriatic Sea. Additionally, seasonal migration trends were documented, with potential implications for ecological impacts due to temporary sea-lagoon connectivity interruptions caused by the MOSE system. This study underscores the utility of eDNA as a tool for monitoring biodiversity and assessing ecological consequences in World Heritage Sites.
Heri-Graphs: A Dataset Creation Framework for Multi-Modal Machine Learning on Graphs of Heritage Values and Attributes with Social Media
Researchers developed Heri-Graphs, a novel framework that constructs multi-modal datasets from social media to analyze heritage values and attributes using graph-based machine learning. By integrating images, texts, geo-locations, timestamps, and social network structures from Flickr posts, the study models visual contents and textual semantics as node features while capturing social relationships and spatio-temporal contexts as links in Multi-Graphs. Tested across three UNESCO World Heritage cities—Amsterdam, Suzhou, and Venice—the framework demonstrated high consistency for semi-supervised learning tasks, offering a scalable approach to map heritage values and attributes. This methodology bridges technical relevance in machine learning with societal interests in urban and heritage studies, paving the way for inclusive heritage management practices globally.
Promoting students’ multiliteracy, multimodal, and global citizenship skills in the second language classroom through designing a digital city tour on izi.TRAVEL
Designing digital city tours using the izi.TRAVEL platform significantly enhances students' multiliteracy, multimodal skills, and global citizenship in second-language learning. A study involving university students of Italian as a second language demonstrated that crafting digital stories based on cultural heritage—specifically Venice—improved their narration, mediation, and interpretation abilities while fostering their role as global citizens. The research employed a two-part project: classroom and museum activities to deepen understanding of Venetian culture, followed by guided creation of digital tours. Multimodal analysis revealed that this approach effectively combined language learning with digital storytelling, promoting both technical and creative competencies.
Sediment oxygen demand rate in a flow regulated lagoon (Venice, Italy)
Sediment oxygen demand (SOD) rates in Venice's lagoon, measured for the first time after the activation of the MOSE flood defense system, reveal significant variability across 16 sites and seasons. SOD ranged from 0.63 to 24.00 g m−2 d−1, with higher values observed in more confined areas, indicating that sediments can rapidly deplete dissolved oxygen even at moderate water temperatures (above 20°C). The study estimated that under MOSE closures, dissolved oxygen consumption times could vary significantly depending on the lagoon area and temperature conditions. This research highlights the potential impact of prolonged water residence times—resulting from flood defenses—on the oxygen balance of lagoons, posing implications for their ecological functioning.
The disintermediation role of social media to manage and monitor visitor flows in heritage sites
Social media plays a pivotal role in managing and monitoring visitor flows at UNESCO World Heritage Sites, offering a disintermediation approach that fosters sustainable tourism. Research analyzing social media platforms from April 2019 to September 2020 across sites like the Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch, Rhaetian Railway, Venice and its Lagoon, and the Tuscan Islands revealed significant insights into visitor behavior, tourism promotion, and hospitality services. The findings highlight how social media can enhance awareness for natural and cultural heritage while mitigating negative impacts of overtourism. A proposed Social Media Action Planning framework aims to guide heritage site managers in communicating values and managing tourism effectively. This study underscores the transformative potential of digital tools in balancing conservation with sustainable visitor engagement.
Tourism Flows in Venice: A personal perspective
Venice's tourism, driven by its rich cultural and historical significance, presents both opportunities and challenges for sustainable development. The city, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, faces increasing tourist flows that threaten its daily life while offering economic benefits. Accessible via three main routes—sea, western/central Italy, and northern Europe—Venice's tourism is shaped by its imperial past, naval history, and trade legacy. To balance growth with preservation, the study aligns with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SDG Goal 8.9), advocating for sustainable tourism that fosters employment while safeguarding local culture and products.
Touristification and displacement. The long-standing production of Venice as a tourist attraction
Venice's transformation into a tourist-dominated city reflects a long-standing process of 'touristification,' marked by demographic shifts and social displacement. This study reveals how Venice, starting with its economic specialization in tourism at the end of the 18th century, has undergone rapid gentrification, particularly due to the rise of mainland towns like Mestre and Marghera. The research traces this evolution through urban dynamics characterized by an 'implosion/explosion' model, where conservation efforts preserved historical architecture while dismantling social diversity. Methodologically, the paper analyzes these processes over two centuries, highlighting how Venice's current tourist monoculture stems from historical choices that prioritized tourism over sustainable urban development.
Venice as a paradigm of coastal flooding under multiple compound drivers
A significant increase in the frequency of floods in Venice over the past three decades is attributed to rising non-tidal contributions to extreme sea levels, alongside relative sea-level rise. This finding emerges from a detailed analysis of the 1872-2019 sea-level time series using spectral decomposition and multivariate copula models, which revealed the complex interplay between storm surges, tides, and long-term atmospheric forcings. While storm surges remain the primary drivers of extreme events, recurrent nuisance flooding is predominantly influenced by tides and seasonal to inter-annual oscillations. The study underscores Venice's role as a paradigm for understanding coastal flood risk under compound drivers, offering critical insights for global coastal management strategies.
Venice Biennale: A Form of Cultural Heritage? A Dialogue from and within a Unique Urban Context
The Venice Biennale, one of the world's most significant art exhibitions, attracts over 800,000 visitors annually, yet its role as a form of cultural heritage remains debated. This study examines how the event interacts with its unique urban context—Venice, a UNESCO World Heritage city grappling with mass tourism and local displacement. It explores whether the Biennale can be considered a cultural asset while balancing contemporary relevance with historical legacy. The research employs qualitative analysis to interrogate this tension, offering insights into the broader implications for heritage preservation and urban identity.
A Constitution for the Anthropocene Body Politic Environment, Culture, and the Humanities in the Twenty-First Century
Venice and its Lagoon serve as a critical 'thinking machine' for contemporary natural-cultural dynamics, offering insights into the Anthropocene's environmental and societal challenges. The study highlights the significance of Environmental Humanities within the broader 'New Humanities' agenda, emphasizing their relevance during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. By leveraging the BRIDGES Project on education for sustainability, the research proposes a 'Constitution for the Anthropocene Body Politic,' framing collective agency—human and nonhuman—as essential to addressing global transformations. The approach integrates interdisciplinary perspectives, drawing on philosophy, human sciences, and technological processes to redefine societal structures in response to environmental pressures.
A strategy to conserve material authenticity in Venice: from wall facing to urban landscape
This study highlights the significance of material authenticity in preserving UNESCO World Heritage Sites, focusing on Venice and its Lagoon. It demonstrates that elements like medieval brick walls play a crucial role in maintaining the historical identity and visual integrity of urban landscapes. The research proposes a meticulous conservation strategy for these surfaces, which serves as a model for broader maintenance programs in Venice. This approach emphasizes the importance of material authenticity not only in architectural projects but also in the overall urban conservation efforts, offering a scalable methodology applicable to other historical contexts.
Assessing glyphosate in water, marine particulate matter, and sediments in the Lagoon of Venice
Glyphosate, one of the most widely used agricultural chemicals globally, is present in the Venice Lagoon primarily due to external inputs from river inlets and local agricultural activities. A study analyzing water, suspended particulate matter, and sediment samples from seven sites between 2019 and 2021 found maximum glyphosate concentrations of 260 ng/L in lagoon water, 7 ng/L in suspended particulate matter, and 15 ng/g in sediment, with spatial and temporal variations. The research employed ion chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to assess glyphosate levels, providing insights into its distribution and sources in this unique ecosystem.
Assessment of State Transition Dynamics of Coastal Wetlands in Northern Venice Lagoon, Italy
A significant shift in the spatial distribution of halophytic vegetation and sediment types occurred in the Lido basin, Venice Lagoon, between 2001 and 2009, marking a period of major ecological transition. This finding was derived from a multi-temporal analysis using Landsat satellite imagery (1990–2011), which revealed fluctuations in the coverage of Sarcocornia-Limonium, a key species promoting sediment deposition, ranging from 13% to 50%. The study introduces a scalable methodology leveraging Earth Observation (EO) techniques to monitor coastal wetland dynamics at various scales, supporting sustainable habitat management and evidence-based policy-making. By identifying ecosystem-level indicators of surface biophysical properties, the research provides insights into the stability and evolution of intertidal flats, with implications for nature-based solutions and morphological restoration efforts.
Detecting the Delayed Signatures of Changing Sediment Supply in Salt-Marsh Landscapes: The Case of the Venice Lagoon (Italy)
Salt-marsh systems worldwide face threats from drowning and erosion, often exacerbated by insufficient sediment supply. A study on the Venice Lagoon reveals that vertical marsh growth can remain insensitive to increased sediment input due to a time lag caused by sediment stocking along pre-existing marsh margins, which leads to horizontal expansion rather than vertical accretion. When sediment input declines, wind waves redistribute stored sediments, enabling vertical growth. This delayed response underscores the complexity of tidal landscape dynamics and has critical implications for managing coastal ecosystems under natural and anthropogenic pressures. The research integrates sedimentological, geochronological, paleoecological, geophysical, and chemical analyses of marsh sediments accumulated over six centuries to unravel these depositional processes.
Early Diagenesis in Sediments of the Venice Lagoon (Italy) and Its Relationship to Hypoxia
A critical link between sediment diagenesis and hypoxia in the Venice Lagoon has been identified, with intense diagenetic activity potentially triggering and sustaining low-oxygen conditions during summer months. The study, spanning three years (2015–2017), found that high-intensity diagenetic zones could deplete oxygen to hypoxic levels within 5–18 days under stagnant conditions, a process exacerbated by climate-driven heatwaves. Sediments were categorized into intense and moderate diagenesis groups based on metrics like dissolved inorganic carbon production (2.8 vs. 1.0 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹) and sulfate consumption (1.6 vs. 0.4 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹). Porewater sulfide accumulation near the sediment-water interface further underscored the role of sediments in oxygen depletion, with implications for lagoon health under changing climate scenarios.
Electrification of Vessels for Garbage Collection and Treatment in Venice Lagoon
Hybrid propulsion systems significantly reduce emissions from vessels operating in UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as Venice Lagoon. A study on the first hybrid vessel designed for garbage collection in Venice's historic center demonstrates that converting diesel units to hybrid models enables near-zero emission navigation. The research highlights key engineering innovations and test results, providing a roadmap for electrifying existing marine transport infrastructure. This approach is crucial for preserving fragile ecosystems while addressing urban pollution challenges.
Extreme floods of Venice: characteristics, dynamics, past and future evolution (review article)
Extreme floods in Venice, driven by a combination of astronomical tides, seiches, and atmospherically forced fluctuations such as storm surges and meteotsunamis, are projected to worsen significantly due to rising mean sea levels. The study reveals that while historical increases in flood frequency since the mid-19th century can be attributed to relative sea level rise, future projections indicate a substantial increase in extreme water heights by 2050 and 2100, depending on emission scenarios. For instance, under a high-emission scenario (RCP8.5), 1-in-100-year water height values could rise by 26–35 cm by 2050 and 53–171 cm by 2100, with local subsidence further exacerbating the situation. The research underscores the need for adaptive long-term planning of coastal defenses to address the wide range of plausible future water height extremes.
Factors shaping the Venice Charter and its usefulness – on the example of heritage protection in Poland
While the Venice Charter remains a foundational document for heritage protection, its universal applicability has diminished over time. Analysis of Poland's conservation practices since 1989 reveals that doctrinal documents like the Venice Charter are shaped by specific historical and socio-political contexts, limiting their broader relevance. The study examines how post-communist system transformations in Poland challenged the Charter's dominance, demonstrating that such documents reflect the conditions under which they were created rather than serving as universal guidelines. This insight underscores the need to reassess the role of foundational heritage protection frameworks in evolving societal and environmental contexts.
Phytoplankton Dynamics and Water Quality in the Venice Lagoon
A 20-year study of the Venice Lagoon reveals that water quality has improved from 'moderate' to 'good,' aligning with European environmental directives. Researchers analyzed phytoplankton dynamics, finding diatoms and nanoflagellates as dominant groups, while coccolithophorids and dinoflagellates were less prevalent. No significant long-term trends in phytoplankton abundance or composition were detected, but seasonal and inter-annual variability was observed. The multimetric phytoplankton index (MPI), recently adopted by Italy for water quality assessment, proved effective in tracking temporal changes. This study underscores the importance of long-term ecological monitoring in lagoon ecosystems and highlights the MPI's utility in compliance with water framework directives.
Resisting the Tourist Gaze. Art Activism Against Cruise Ship Extractivism in the Venice Lagoon
Art activism in Venice is emerging as a powerful tool against the ecological and social degradation caused by cruise ship extractivism. The study highlights how local artistic projects, including those by Eleonora Sovrani, Gli Impresari, Banksy, and Elena Mazzi, visually expose the failures of Venice's current urban development model rooted in mass tourism. These artworks challenge the exploitative economic model of cruise companies, which entangles tourists, local communities, and the lagoon ecosystem. By framing resistance against planetary extractive capitalism, this research demonstrates how art can serve as a critical lens to denounce environmental harm and advocate for sustainable alternatives.
Sea-level rise in Venice: historic and future trends (review article)
Venice and its lagoon face significant threats from relative sea-level rise, with historical data showing an average increase of 2.5 mm/year over the past 150 years, largely driven by subsidence (contributing roughly half) and global sea-level rise. Recent tide-gauge analyses indicate a post-subsidence rate of 1.23 ± 0.13 mm/year from 1872 to 2019, with higher uncertainty in recent decades (+2.76 ± 1.75 mm/year between 1993 and 2019). Projections for 2100 suggest a likely rise of 32–62 cm under the RCP2.6 scenario and 58–110 cm under RCP8.5, with a potential high-end scenario of 180 cm due to rapid ice-sheet melting. Human-induced land motions, though unquantified in future projections, historically exacerbate risks. The study synthesizes recent research on local and regional processes, highlighting uncertainties tied to Mediterranean sea-level dynamics and atmospheric-oceanic variability.
Ship-based Repeat Hydrography: A Strategy for a Sustained Global Programme. A Community White Paper developed by the Global Ocean Ship-based Repeat Hydrographic Investigations Panel for the OceanObs ’09 Conference, Venice, Italy, 21–25 September 2009
A strategy for sustained global ship-based repeat hydrography is proposed, emphasizing the importance of long-term oceanographic monitoring. This approach involves systematic sampling along predefined transects to track changes in ocean properties over time. The paper, developed by a panel at the OceanObs ’09 Conference in Venice, Italy, outlines a framework for coordinated international efforts to observe and understand ocean dynamics. It highlights the need for sustained financial support, as demonstrated by grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation, to ensure the continuity of such programs. The strategy aims to provide critical data for global climate research and marine environmental studies.
The Holocene influence on the future evolution of the Venice Lagoon tidal marshes
To sustain Venice Lagoon's tidal marshes amid accelerating sea-level rise, sedimentation rates must double current levels. This critical finding stems from a study that quantified how past sediment dynamics influence future marsh resilience. Researchers analyzed elevation data and applied physics-based models to assess deposition and soil compaction in the lagoon. The results reveal that soft, recently deposited soils play a pivotal role in determining the fate of low-lying tidal landscapes over the next century. Without sufficient sedimentation, marshes risk submergence due to both sea-level rise and soil compaction.
The prediction of floods in Venice: methods, models and uncertainty (review article)
Storm surge forecasting in Venice faces increasing challenges due to the impending completion of the MOSE barriers, which require precise predictions for effective operation. This review identifies four key improvements to enhance forecast accuracy: better meteorological forecasts, ensemble forecasting, assimilation of water level measurements, and a multimodel approach. The study analyzes historic extreme events that posed significant forecasting difficulties, emphasizing the need to address uncertainty in surge prediction models. By integrating these advancements, the system can better protect Venice's population, economy, and cultural heritage from flood threats.
Zoom: Dominique Roger: “UNESCO offered me the world”
In 1966, Venice faced catastrophic flooding when an exceptionally high tide, known as acqua alta, breached coastal dykes and submerged the city under more than a meter of water. This event triggered a global call for international solidarity, coordinated by UNESCO, leading to widespread rescue efforts that underscored the cultural and historical significance of Venice as an architectural marvel. The publication highlights how UNESCO's intervention transformed this crisis into an opportunity for global cooperation, emphasizing the importance of preserving such irreplaceable heritage sites. The narrative focuses on the immediate response and its broader implications for international solidarity in safeguarding World Heritage Sites.
COVID-19 lockdown measures reveal human impact on water transparency in the Venice Lagoon
COVID-19 lockdown measures in Italy significantly improved water transparency in the Venice Lagoon, offering a rare glimpse into its environmental state without human interference. The study, published in Science of the Total Environment, analyzed satellite imagery from Sentinel-2 to compare suspended matter patterns before and during the lockdown (March 10, 2020). Results showed that the absence of vessel traffic—a major anthropogenic stressor—led to a transient increase in water clarity. This effect was attributed to both natural seasonal factors and the reduction of human activities, highlighting the lagoon's rapid response to external pressures. The findings underscore the interplay between natural processes and anthropogenic impacts on this dynamic ecosystem.
Impacts of Marine and Lagoon Aquaculture on Macrophytes in Mediterranean Benthic Ecosystems
Aquaculture in Mediterranean lagoons, including fish and shellfish farming, significantly impacts benthic ecosystems by altering macrophyte communities. Fish farms introduce organic matter and nutrients that can extirpate seagrass meadows like Posidonia oceanica, with effects persisting long after farming ceases. Shellfish aquaculture introduces non-native seaweeds (e.g., from Japan and Korea), which dominate lagoons such as Venice, while mussel farms contribute to larval flows that overwhelm native seaweed forests. Additionally, shellfish farming spreads diseases affecting metazoans, disrupting ecosystem function. Overfishing of predatory fish and organic pollution have historically boosted the edible sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, leading to the decline of endemic seaweed forests. Attempts to restore urchin populations via hatchery seeding further artificialize habitats rather than aiding natural recovery. The study proposes guidelines to minimize aquaculture's ecological footprint on Mediterranean macrophytes.
Multi-Year Concentrations, Health Risk, and Source Identification, of Air Toxics in the Venice Lagoon
A multi-year study of the Venice Lagoon revealed relatively homogeneous spatial distribution of toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) across three construction sites, with a slight decrease in PAH and PM10 concentrations observed over time. The research, conducted between 2010 and 2015, identified benzo(a)pyrene and dibenzo(A,H)anthracene as the primary contributors to carcinogenic risk, predominantly in particulate phases. The study employed low-volume sequential aerosol samplers for PM10 and high-volume air samplers for PAH analysis, utilizing ICP-MS and GC-HRMS techniques respectively. Diagnostic ratios were calculated to investigate PAH sources, providing critical insights into air quality impacts near construction activities such as the MOSE mobile dams project.
Nested BoxesTangible Cultural Heritage and Environmental Protection in Light of Climate Change
Climate change poses significant threats to UNESCO World Heritage Sites, particularly those with mixed cultural and natural significance. A study reveals that while the World Heritage Convention provides specialized protection for localized adaptation and mitigation measures at these sites, international environmental regulations like the UNFCCC focus more broadly on systemic mitigation and adaptation, potentially overlooking specific heritage concerns. This 'nested boxes' paradigm highlights the need for a more integrated approach to balancing cultural heritage preservation with global environmental strategies. The research underscores the importance of recognizing tangible cultural heritage as both a localized and systemic priority in international law.
Process orientation of the world heritage city management system
A process-oriented approach to managing UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS) enhances stakeholder engagement and improves outcomes, as demonstrated by its application to Venice and Split. This study proposes a new management meta-model that integrates theoretical concepts into practical processes, using Unified Modelling Language (UML) to document activities and responsibilities within a hierarchical structure. The approach bridges UNESCO directives with on-the-ground managerial systems, offering potential benefits for WHS managers, scholars, and experts alike. By focusing on stakeholder collaboration and process architecture, this method aims to optimize outputs and outcomes while addressing key challenges in heritage city management.
Sediment Carbon Variations in the Venice Lagoon and Other Transitional Water Systems of the Northern Adriatic Sea
Sediment carbon variations in the Venice Lagoon and adjacent transitional water systems exhibit strong correlations with anthropogenic impacts, particularly eutrophication and clam-fishing activities. Inorganic carbon (Cinorg) is linked to sediment origins—carbonate or siliceous—and its levels, along with organic carbon (Corg), fluctuate significantly under different environmental pressures. Higher sediment density, grain size, and pH are associated with good ecological conditions, marked by increased biological inorganic carbon such as shell fragments and calcified macroalgae. Conversely, Corg, indicative of eutrophic conditions, is heavily influenced by sediment disturbance and high bivalve concentrations, which accelerate its consumption. The study analyzed surface sediments from 1987 to 2011, integrating data from the Venice Lagoon, Po Delta lagoons, Comacchio Valleys, and Pialassa della Baiona, revealing nuanced relationships between carbon dynamics and ecological health in these vulnerable coastal ecosystems.
The 2019 Flooding of Venice and Its Implications for Future Predictions
The 2019 flooding of Venice, one of the worst in its history, resulted from a combination of factors that were individually unremarkable but collectively severe. This event highlighted the challenges in accurately forecasting such storms due to their complex characteristics. The study emphasizes the importance of integrating probabilistic information from ensemble forecasts into future predictions. It also warns that flooding risks will likely worsen globally as natural conditions rapidly change, using Venice as a case study for similar coastal locations. The research combines meteorological and oceanographic data analysis to assess the 2019 storm's unique features and their implications for long-term resilience strategies.
The Concept of Authenticity in Restoration Analysis of Monitoring and Restoration in the Authenticity Preservation of Cultural Heritage
A critical shift in heritage preservation emphasizes the role of non-physical forms—such as values, meanings, and cultural significance—in maintaining the authenticity of architectural heritage. While sustainable design advances physical structures, this study highlights that authenticity is equally dependent on intangible aspects like originality, locality, and historical interpretation. It introduces criteria for monitoring and restoration, distinguishing qualitative and quantitative variables to assess their impacts on authenticity preservation. The research builds on foundational documents such as the Venice Charter (1964) and the Nara Document (1994), which redefined authenticity in global heritage conservation. By weighting these criteria, it offers a framework for balancing technical and cultural considerations in restoring sites like Venice’s Lagoon.
The UNESCO Site “Venice and Its Lagoon”: Cultural Heritage Protection Policies
Cultural heritage protection policies for Venice and its Lagoon are significantly challenged by social and anthropological factors, particularly in less-touristed areas with minor architecture. These pressures, stemming from transformations in construction, trade, housing, and historical practices, threaten the site's cultural identity and landscape integrity. The study highlights that effective mitigation requires targeted actions from municipal authorities and stakeholders to address these obstacles. It also examines recent guidelines developed by the Superintendence for Archaeology, Fine Arts and Landscape for Venice, which aim to balance preservation with contemporary needs while navigating complex socio-technical dynamics.
Venice and Overtourism: Simulating Sustainable Development Scenarios through a Tourism Carrying Capacity Model
A fuzzy linear programming model offers a nuanced approach to balancing tourism's economic benefits and its negative impacts on destinations, as demonstrated by its application to Venice. This methodology addresses data uncertainty by incorporating fuzzy numbers derived from surveys of both tourists and residents, providing a more flexible framework than traditional 'crisp' models. The study highlights that such an approach can help destinations like Venice better understand the challenges of sustainable tourism development, evaluate policy impacts on sustainability, and design strategies for managing tourist flows more effectively. By simulating scenarios that maximize monetary gains while controlling undesirable tourism effects, this model presents a practical tool for policymakers to navigate the complexities of overtourism.
Vulnerability of Venice's coastland to relative sea-level rise
Venice's coastland, a significant low-lying area in Italy, faces severe threats from relative sea-level rise (RSLR), which combines climate-induced sea-level changes with land subsidence. This study reveals that even minor land subsidence rates of a few millimeters per year can critically impact the region, home to valuable ecosystems, historical heritage, and economic activities. The research employs an index-based model at a regional scale, integrating high-resolution satellite data on land subsidence, ongoing and projected sea-level rise trends, and the morpho-physiographic characteristics of the coastland. This approach highlights the uneven distribution of subsidence across Venice's diverse environments—including farmlands, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, and urban areas—underscoring the urgent need for targeted mitigation strategies to address RSLR vulnerabilities.
A procedure for the quantification of total iodine by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and its application to the determination of iodine in algae sampled in the lagoon of Venice
A novel procedure using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was successfully developed to quantify total iodine levels, offering a precise method for biomonitoring. Applied to seaweeds from Venice's lagoon, the technique revealed significant iodine concentrations in these marine organisms, providing critical data on environmental iodine distribution and potential ecological impacts. The study highlights ICP-MS as a reliable tool for trace element analysis in complex matrices, with implications for monitoring water quality and biological health in coastal ecosystems.
Salinity and its variability in the Lagoon of Venice, 2000–2009
The Lagoon of Venice exhibits a stable, steady-state salinity distribution characterized by three distinct zones: a northern freshwater-influenced area with high tidal variability (salinity <28 PSU), a southern marine zone with low tidal variability (salinity >32 PSU), and an intermediate transition zone. This stability, supported by data from 13 stations spanning 2000–2009, indicates that salinity changes are primarily driven by rainfall events and tidal motion rather than intrinsic water composition shifts. The study confirms the lagoon's long-term (to 1961) equilibrium, fostering at least three separate ecosystems. Researchers analyzed monthly and bimonthly salinity data alongside semi-continuous 2009 measurements to validate these findings.
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